The Poverty of Fanaticism

“The Islamic movement risks ceasing to form an authentic summons to cultural and spiritual renewal, and existing as little more than a splintered array of maniacal factions. The prospect of such an appalling and humiliating end to the story of a religion which once surpassed all others in its capacity for tolerating debate and dissent is now a real possibility.”

By British convert to Islam, Abdal-Hakim Murad

source: http://www.islamfortoday.com

‘Blood is no argument‘, as Shakespeare observed. Sadly, Muslim ranks are today swollen with those who disagree. The World Trade Centre, yesterday’s symbol of global finance, has today become a monument to the failure of global Islam to control those who believe that the West can be bullied into changing its wayward ways towards the East. There is no real excuse to hand. It is simply not enough to clamour, as many have done, about ‘chickens coming home to roost’, and to protest that Washington’s acquiescence in Israeli policies of ethnic cleansing is the inevitable generator of such hate. It is of course true – as Shabbir Akhtar has noted – that powerlessness can corrupt as insistently as does power. But to comprehend is not to sanction or even to empathize. To take innocent life to achieve a goal is the hallmark of the most extreme secular utilitarian ethic, and stands at the opposite pole of the absolute moral constraints required by religion.

There was a time, not long ago, when the ‘ultras’ were few, forming only a tiny wart on the face of the worldwide attempt to revivify Islam. Sadly, we can no longer enjoy the luxury of ignoring them. The extreme has broadened, and the middle ground, giving way, is everywhere dislocated and confused. And this enfeeblement of the middle ground, was what was enjoined by the Prophetic example, is in turn accelerated by the opprobrium which the extremists bring not simply upon themselves, but upon committed Muslims everywhere. For here, as elsewhere, the preferences of the media work firmly against us. David Koresh could broadcast his fringe Biblical message from Ranch Apocalypse without the image of Christianity, or even its Adventist wing, being in any way besmirched. But when a fringe Islamic group bombs Swedish tourists in Cairo, the muck is instantly spread over ‘militant Muslims’ everywhere.

If these things go on, the Islamic movement will cease to form an authentic summons to cultural and spiritual renewal, and will exist as little more than a splintered array of maniacal factions. The prospect of such an appalling and humiliating end to the story of a religion which once surpassed all others in its capacity for tolerating debate and dissent is now a real possibility. The entire experience of Islamic work over the past fifteen years has been one of increasing radicalization, driven by the perceived failure of the traditional Islamic institutions and the older Muslim movements to lead the Muslim peoples into the worthy but so far chimerical promised land of the ‘Islamic State.’

If this final catastrophe is to be averted, the mainstream will have to regain the initiative. But for this to happen, it must begin by confessing that the radical critique of moderation has its force. The Islamic movement has so far been remarkably unsuccessful. We must ask ourselves how it is that a man like Nasser, a butcher, a failed soldier and a cynical demagogue, could have taken over a country as pivotal as Egypt, despite the vacuity of his beliefs, while the Muslim Brotherhood, with its pullulating millions of members, should have failed, and failed continuously, for six decades. The radical accusation of a failure in methodology cannot fail to strike home in such a context of dismal and prolonged inadequacy.

It is in this context – startlingly, perhaps, but inescapably – that we must present our case for the revival of the spiritual life within Islam. If it is ever to prosper, the ‘Islamic revival’ must be made to see that it is in crisis, and that its mental resources are proving insufficient to meet contemporary needs. The response to this must be grounded in an act of collective muhasaba, of self-examination, in terms that transcend the ideologised neo-Islam of the revivalists, and return to a more classical and indigenously Muslim dialectic.

Symptomatic of the disease is the fact that among all the explanations offered for the crisis of the Islamic movement, the only authentically Muslim interpretation, namely, that God should not be lending it His support, is conspicuously absent. It is true that we frequently hear the Quranic verse which states that “God does not change the condition of a people until they change the condition of their own selves.” [1] But never, it seems, is this principle intelligently grasped. It is assumed that the sacred text is here doing no more than to enjoin individual moral reform as a precondition for collective societal success. Nothing could be more hazardous, however, than to measure such moral reform against the yardstick of the fiqh without giving concern to whether the virtues gained have been acquired through conformity (a relatively simple task), or proceed spontaneously from a genuine realignment of the soul. The verse is speaking of a spiritual change, specifically, a transformation of the nafs of the believers – not a moral one. And as the Blessed Prophet never tired of reminding us, there is little value in outward conformity to the rules unless this conformity is mirrored and engendered by an authentically righteous disposition of the heart. ‘No-one shall enter the Garden by his works,’ as he expressed it. Meanwhile, the profoundly judgmental and works – oriented tenor of modern revivalist Islam (we must shun the problematic buzz-word ‘fundamentalism’), fixated on visible manifestations of morality, has failed to address the underlying question of what revelation is for. For it is theological nonsense to suggest that God’s final concern is with our ability to conform to a complex set of rules. His concern is rather that we should be restored, through our labours and His grace, to that state of purity and equilibrium with which we were born. The rules are a vital means to that end, and are facilitated by it. But they do not take its place.

To make this point, the Holy Quran deploys a striking metaphor. In Sura Ibrahim, verses 24 to 26, we read:

Have you not seen how God coineth a likeness: a goodly word like a goodly tree, the root whereof is set firm, its branch in the heaven? It bringeth forth its fruit at every time, by the leave of its Lord. Thus doth God coin likenesses for men, that perhaps they may reflect. And the likeness of an evil word is that of an evil tree that hath been torn up by the root from upon the earth, possessed of no stability.

According to the scholars of tafsir (exegesis), the reference here is to the ‘words’ (kalima) of faith and unfaith. The former is illustrated as a natural growth, whose florescence of moral and intellectual achievement is nourished by firm roots, which in turn denote the basis of faith: the quality of the proofs one has received, and the certainty and sound awareness of God which alone signify that one is firmly grounded in the reality of existence. The fruits thus yielded – the palpable benefits of the religious life – are permanent (‘at every time’), and are not man’s own accomplishment, for they only come ‘by the leave of its Lord’. Thus is the sound life of faith. The contrast is then drawn with the only alternative: kufr, which is not grounded in reality but in illusion, and is hence ‘possessed of no stability’.[2]

This passage, reminiscent of some of the binary categorisations of human types presented early on in Surat al-Baqara, precisely encapsulates the relationship between faith and works, the hierarchy which exists between them, and the sustainable balance between nourishment and fructition, between taking and giving, which true faith must maintain.

It is against this criterion that we must judge the quality of contemporary ‘activist’ styles of faith. Is the young ‘ultra’, with his intense rage which can sometimes render him liable to nervous disorders, and his fixation on a relatively narrow range of issues and concerns, really firmly rooted, and fruitful, in the sense described by this Quranic image?

Let me point to the answer with an example drawn from my own experience.

I used to know, quite well, a leader of the radical ‘Islamic’ group, the Jama’at Islamiya, at the Egyptian university of Assiut. His name was Hamdi. He grew a luxuriant beard, was constantly scrubbing his teeth with his miswak, and spent his time preaching hatred of the Coptic Christians, a number of whom were actually attacked and beaten up as a result of his khutbas. He had hundreds of followers; in fact, Assiut today remains a citadel of hardline, Wahhabi-style activism.

The moral of the story is that some five years after this acquaintance, providence again brought me face to face with Shaikh Hamdi. This time, chancing to see him on a Cairo street, I almost failed to recognise him. The beard was gone. He was in trousers and a sweater. More astonishing still was that he was walking with a young Western girl who turned out to be an Australian, whom, as he sheepishly explained to me, he was intending to marry. I talked to him, and it became clear that he was no longer even a minimally observant Muslim, no longer prayed, and that his ambition in life was to leave Egypt, live in Australia, and make money. What was extraordinary was that his experiences in Islamic activism had made no impression on him – he was once again the same distracted, ordinary Egyptian youth he had been before his conversion to ‘radical Islam’.

This phenomenon, which we might label ‘salafi burnout‘, is a recognised feature of many modern Muslim cultures. An initial enthusiasm, gained usually in one’s early twenties, loses steam some seven to ten years later. Prison and torture – the frequent lot of the Islamic radical – may serve to prolong commitment, but ultimately, a majority of these neo-Muslims relapse, seemingly no better or worse for their experience in the cult-like universe of the salafi mindset.

This ephemerality of extremist activism should be as suspicious as its content. Authentic Muslim faith is simply not supposed to be this fragile; as the Qur’an says, its root is meant to be ’set firm’. One has to conclude that of the two trees depicted in the Quranic image, salafi extremism resembles the second rather than the first. After all, the Sahaba were not known for a transient commitment: their devotion and piety remained incomparably pure until they died.

What attracts young Muslims to this type of ephemeral but ferocious activism? One does not have to subscribe to determinist social theories to realise the importance of the almost universal condition of insecurity which Muslim societies are now experiencing. The Islamic world is passing through a most devastating period of transition. A history of economic and scientific change which in Europe took five hundred years, is, in the Muslim world, being squeezed into a couple of generations. For instance, only thirty-five years ago the capital of Saudi Arabia was a cluster of mud huts, as it had been for thousands of years. Today’s Riyadh is a hi-tech megacity of glass towers, Coke machines, and gliding Cadillacs. This is an extreme case, but to some extent the dislocations of modernity are common to every Muslim society, excepting, perhaps, a handful of the most remote tribal peoples.

Such a transition period, with its centrifugal forces which allow nothing to remain constant, makes human beings very insecure. They look around for something to hold onto, that will give them an identity. In our case, that something is usually Islam. And because they are being propelled into it by this psychic sense of insecurity, rather than by the more normal processes of conversion and faith, they lack some of the natural religious virtues, which are acquired by contact with a continuous tradition, and can never be learnt from a book.

One easily visualises how this works. A young Arab, part of an oversized family, competing for scarce jobs, unable to marry because he is poor, perhaps a migrant to a rapidly expanding city, feels like a man lost in a desert without signposts. One morning he picks up a copy of Sayyid Qutb from a newsstand, and is ‘born-again’ on the spot. This is what he needed: instant certainty, a framework in which to interpret the landscape before him, to resolve the problems and tensions of his life, and, even more deliciously, a way of feeling superior and in control. He joins a group, and, anxious to retain his newfound certainty, accepts the usual proposition that all the other groups are mistaken.

This, of course, is not how Muslim religious conversion is supposed to work. It is meant to be a process of intellectual maturation, triggered by the presence of a very holy person or place. Tawba, in its traditional form, yields an outlook of joy, contentment, and a deep affection for others. The modern type of tawba, however, born of insecurity, often makes Muslims narrow, intolerant, and exclusivist. Even more noticeably, it produces people whose faith is, despite its apparent intensity, liable to vanish as suddenly as it came. Deprived of real nourishment, the activist’s soul can only grow hungry and emaciated, until at last it dies.

THE ACTIVISM WITHIN

How should we respond to this disorder? We must begin by remembering what Islam is for. As we noted earlier, our din is not, ultimately, a manual of rules which, when meticulously followed, becomes a passport to paradise. Instead, it is a package of social, intellectual and spiritual technology whose purpose is to cleanse the human heart. In the Qur’an, the Lord says that on the Day of Judgement, nothing will be of any use to us, except a sound heart (qalbun salim). [3] And in a famous hadith, the Prophet, upon whom be blessings and peace, says that

“Verily in the body there is a piece of flesh. If it is sound, the body is all sound. If it is corrupt, the body is all corrupt. Verily, it is the heart.

Mindful of this commandment, under which all the other commandments of Islam are subsumed, and which alone gives them meaning, the Islamic scholars have worked out a science, an ilm (science), of analysing the ’states’ of the heart, and the methods of bringing it into this condition of soundness. In the fullness of time, this science acquired the name tasawwuf, in English ‘Sufism’ – a traditional label for what we might nowadays more intelligibly call ‘Islamic psychology.’

At this point, many hackles are raised and well-rehearsed objections voiced. It is vital to understand that mainstream Sufism is not, and never has been, a doctrinal system, or a school of thought – a madhhab. It is, instead, a set of insights and practices which operate within the various Islamic madhhabs; in other words, it is not a madhhab, it is an ilm. And like most of the other Islamic ulum, it was not known by name, or in its later developed form, in the age of the Prophet (upon him be blessings and peace) or his Companions. This does not make it less legitimate. There are many Islamic sciences which only took shape many years after the Prophetic age: usul al-fiqh, for instance, or the innumerable technical disciplines of hadith.

Now this, of course, leads us into the often misunderstood area of sunna and bid’a, two notions which are wielded as blunt instruments by many contemporary activists, but which are often grossly misunderstood. The classic Orientalist thesis is of course that Islam, as an ‘arid Semitic religion’, failed to incorporate mechanisms for its own development, and that it petrified upon the death of its founder. This, however, is a nonsense rooted in the ethnic determinism of the nineteenth century historians who had shaped the views of the early Orientalist synthesizers (Muir, Le Bon, Renan, Caetani). Islam, as the religion designed for the end of time, has in fact proved itself eminently adaptable to the rapidly changing conditions which characterise this final and most ‘entropic’ stage of history.

What is a bid’a, according to the classical definitions of Islamic law? We all know the famous hadith:

Beware of matters newly begun, for every matter newly begun is innovation, every innovation is misguidance, and every misguidance is in Hell. [4]

Does this mean that everything introduced into Islam that was not known to the first generation of Muslims is to be rejected? The classical ulema do not accept such a literalistic interpretation.

Let us take a definition from Imam al-Shafi’i, an authority universally accepted in Sunni Islam. Imam al-Shafi’i writes:

There are two kinds of introduced matters (muhdathat). One is that which contradicts a text of the Qur’an, or the Sunna, or a report from the early Muslims (athar), or the consensus (ijma’) of the Muslims: this is an ‘innovation of misguidance’ (bid’at dalala). The second kind is that which is in itself good and entails no contradiction of any of these authorities: this is a ‘non-reprehensible innovation’ (bid’a ghayr madhmuma). [5]

This basic distinction between acceptable and unacceptable forms of bid’a is recognised by the overwhelming majority of classical ulema. Among some, for instance al-Izz ibn Abd al-Salam (one of the half-dozen or so great mujtahids of Islamic history), innovations fall under the five axiological headings of the Shari’a: the obligatory (wajib), the recommended (mandub), the permissible (mubah), the offensive (makruh), and the forbidden (haram).[6]

Under the category of ‘obligatory innovation’, Ibn Abd al-Salam gives the following examples: recording the Qur’an and the laws of Islam in writing at a time when it was feared that they would be lost, studying Arabic grammar in order to resolve controversies over the Qur’an, and developing philosophical theology (kalam) to refute the claims of the Mu’tazilites.

Category two is ‘recommended innovation’. Under this heading the ulema list such activities as building madrasas, writing books on beneficial Islamic subjects, and in-depth studies of Arabic linguistics.

Category three is ‘permissible’, or ‘neutral innovation’, including worldly activities such as sifting flour, and constructing houses in various styles not known in Medina.

Category four is the ‘reprehensible innovation’. This includes such misdemeanours as overdecorating mosques or the Qur’an.

Category five is the ‘forbidden innovation’. This includes unlawful taxes, giving judgeships to those unqualified to hold them, and sectarian beliefs and practices that explicitly contravene the known principles of the Qur’an and the Sunna.

The above classification of bid’a types is normal in classical Shari’a literature, being accepted by the four schools of orthodox fiqh. There have been only two significant exceptions to this understanding in the history of Islamic thought: the Zahiri school as articulated by Ibn Hazm, and one wing of the Hanbali madhhab, represented by Ibn Taymiya, who goes against the classical ijma’ on this issue, and claims that all forms of innovation, good or bad, are un-Islamic.

Why is it, then, that so many Muslims now believe that innovation in any form is unacceptable in Islam? One factor has already been touched on: the mental complexes thrown up by insecurity, which incline people to find comfort in absolutist and literalist interpretations. Another lies in the influence of the well-financed neo-Hanbali madhhab called Wahhabism, whose leaders are famous for their rejection of all possibility of development.

In any case, armed with this more sophisticated and classical awareness of Islam’s ability to acknowledge and assimilate novelty, we can understand how Muslim civilisation was able so quickly to produce novel academic disciplines to deal with new problems as these arose.

Islamic psychology is characteristic of the new ulum which, although present in latent and implicit form in the Quran, were first systematized in Islamic culture during the early Abbasid period. Given the importance that the Quran attaches to obtaining a ’sound heart’, we are not surprised to find that the influence of Islamic psychology has been massive and all-pervasive. In the formative first four centuries of Islam, the time when the great works of tafsir, hadith, grammar, and so forth were laid down, the ulema also applied their minds to this problem of al-qalb al-salim. This was first visible when, following the example of the Tabi’in, many of the early ascetics, such as Sufyan ibn Uyayna, Sufyan al-Thawri, and Abdallah ibn al-Mubarak, had focussed their concerns explicitly on the art of purifying the heart. The methods they recommended were frequent fasting and night prayer, periodic retreats, and a preoccupation with murabata: service as volunteer fighters in the border castles of Asia Minor.

This type of pietist orientation was not in the least systematic during this period. It was a loose category embracing all Muslims who sought salvation through the Prophetic virtues of renunciation, sincerity, and deep devotion to the revelation. These men and women were variously referred to as al-bakka’un: ‘the weepers’, because of their fear of the Day of Judgement, or as zuhhad, ascetics, or ubbad, ‘unceasing worshippers’.

By the third century, however, we start to find writings which can be understood as belonging to a distinct devotional school. The increasing luxury and materialism of Abbasid urban society spurred many Muslims to campaign for a restoration of the simplicity of the Prophetic age. Purity of heart, compassion for others, and a constant recollection of God were the defining features of this trend. We find references to the method of muhasaba: self-examination to detect impurities of intention. Also stressed was riyada: self-discipline.

By this time, too, the main outlines of Quranic psychology had been worked out. The human creature, it was realised, was made up of four constituent parts: the body (jism), the mind (aql), the spirit (ruh), and the self (nafs). The first two need little comment. Less familiar (at least to people of a modern education) are the third and fourth categories.

The spirit is the ruh, that underlying essence of the human individual which survives death. It is hard to comprehend rationally, being in part of Divine inspiration, as the Quran says:

“And they ask you about the spirit; say, the spirit is of the command of my Lord. And you have been given of knowledge only a little.”[7]

According to the early Islamic psychologists, the ruh is a non-material reality which pervades the entire human body, but is centred on the heart, the qalb. It represents that part of man which is not of this world, and which connects him with his Creator, and which, if he is fortunate, enables him to see God in the next world. When we are born, this ruh is intact and pure. As we are initiated into the distractions of the world, however, it is covered over with the ‘rust’ (ran) of which the Quran speaks. This rust is made up of two things: sin and distraction. When, through the process of self-discipline, these are banished, so that the worshipper is preserved from sin and is focussing entirely on the immediate presence and reality of God, the rust is dissolved, and the ruh once again is free. The heart is sound; and salvation, and closeness to God, are achieved.

This sounds simple enough. However, the early Muslims taught that such precious things come only at an appropriate price. Cleaning up the Augean stables of the heart is a most excruciating challenge. Outward conformity to the rules of religion is simple enough; but it is only the first step. Much more demanding is the policy known as mujahada: the daily combat against the lower self, the nafs. As the Quran says:

‘As for him that fears the standing before his Lord, and forbids his nafs its desires, for him, Heaven shall be his place of resort.’[8]

Hence the Sufi commandment:

‘Slaughter your ego with the knives of mujahada.’ [9]

Once the nafs is controlled, then the heart is clear, and the virtues proceed from it easily and naturally.

Because its objective is nothing less than salvation, this vital Islamic science has been consistently expounded by the great scholars of classical Islam. While today there are many Muslims, influenced by either Wahhabi or Orientalist agendas, who believe that Sufism has always led a somewhat marginal existence in Islam, the reality is that the overwhelming majority of the classical scholars were actively involved in Sufism.

The early Shafi’i scholars of Khurasan: al-Hakim al-Nisaburi, Ibn Furak, al-Qushayri and al-Bayhaqi, were all Sufis who formed links in the richest academic tradition of Abbasid Islam, which culminated in the achievement of Imam Hujjat al-Islam al-Ghazali. Ghazali himself, author of some three hundred books, including the definitive rebuttals of Arab philosophy and the Ismailis, three large textbooks of Shafi’i fiqh, the best-known tract of usul al-fiqh, two works on logic, and several theological treatises, also left us with the classic statement of orthodox Sufism: the Ihya Ulum al-Din, a book of which Imam Nawawi remarked:

“Were the books of Islam all to be lost, excepting only the Ihya’, it would suffice to replace them all.” [10]

Imam Nawawi himself wrote two books which record his debt to Sufism, one called the Bustan al-Arifin (‘Garden of the Gnostics’, and another called the al-Maqasid (recently published in English translation, Sunna Books, Evanston Il. trans. Nuh Ha Mim Keller).

Among the Malikis, too, Sufism was popular. Al-Sawi, al-Dardir, al-Laqqani and Abd al-Wahhab al-Baghdadi were all exponents of Sufism. The Maliki jurist of Cairo, Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha’rani defines Sufism as follows:

‘The path of the Sufis is built on the Quran and the Sunna, and is based on living according to the morals of the prophets and the purified ones. It may not be blamed, unless it violates an explicit statement from the Quran, sunna, or ijma. If it does not contravene any of these sources, then no pretext remains for condemning it, except one’s own low opinion of others, or interpreting what they do as ostentation, which is unlawful. No-one denies the states of the Sufis except someone ignorant of the way they are.’[11]

For Hanbali Sufism one has to look no further than the revered figures of Abdallah Ansari, Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, Ibn al-Jawzi, and Ibn Rajab.

In fact, virtually all the great luminaries of medieval Islam: al-Suyuti, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, al-Ayni, Ibn Khaldun, al-Subki, Ibn Hajar al-Haytami; tafsir writers like Baydawi, al-Sawi, Abu’l-Su’ud, al-Baghawi, and Ibn Kathir[12] ; aqida writers such as Taftazani, al-Nasafi, al-Razi: all wrote in support of Sufism. Many, indeed, composed independent works of Sufi inspiration. The ulema of the great dynasties of Islamic history, including the Ottomans and the Moghuls, were deeply infused with the Sufi outlook, regarding it as one of the most central and indispensable of Islamic sciences.

Further confirmation of the Islamic legitimacy of Sufism is supplied by the enthusiasm of its exponents for carrying Islam beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world. The Islamization process in India, Black Africa, and South-East Asia was carried out largely at the hands of wandering Sufi teachers. Likewise, the Islamic obligation of jihad has been borne with especial zeal by the Sufi orders. All the great nineteenth century jihadists: Uthman dan Fodio (Hausaland), al-Sanousi (Libya), Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri (Algeria), Imam Shamil (Daghestan) and the leaders of the Padre Rebellion (Sumatra) were active practitioners of Sufism, writing extensively on it while on their campaigns. Nothing is further from reality, in fact, than the claim that Sufism represents a quietist and non-militant form of Islam.

With all this, we confront a paradox. Why is it, if Sufism has been so respected a part of Muslim intellectual and political life throughout our history, that there are, nowadays, angry voices raised against it? There are two fundamental reasons here.

Firstly, there is again the pervasive influence of Orientalist scholarship, which, at least before 1922 when Massignon wrote his Essai sur les origines de la lexique technique, was of the opinion that something so fertile and profound as Sufism could never have grown from the essentially ‘barren and legalistic’ soil of Islam. Orientalist works translated into Muslim languages were influential upon key Muslim modernists – such as Muhammad Abduh in his later writings – who began to question the centrality, or even the legitimacy, of Sufi discourse in Islam.

Secondly, there is the emergence of the Wahhabi da’wa. When Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, some two hundred years ago, teamed up with the Saudi tribe and attacked the neighbouring clans, he was doing so under the sign of an essentially neo-Kharijite version of Islam. Although he invoked Ibn Taymiya, he had reservations even about him. For Ibn Taymiya himself, although critical of the excesses of certain Sufi groups, had been committed to a branch of mainstream Sufism. This is clear, for instance, in Ibn Taymiya’s work Sharh Futuh al-Ghayb, a commentary on some technical points in the Revelations of the Unseen, a key work by the sixth-century saint of Baghdad, Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani. Throughout the work Ibn Taymiya shows himself to be a loyal disciple of al-Jilani, whom he always refers to as shaykhuna (‘our teacher’). This Qadiri affiliation is confirmed in the later literature of the Qadiri tariqa, which records Ibn Taymiya as a key link in the silsila, the chain of transmission of Qadiri teachings.[13]

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, however, went far beyond this. Raised in the wastelands of Najd in Central Arabia, he had little access to mainstream Muslim scholarship. In fact, when his da’wa appeared and became notorious, the scholars and muftis of the day applied to it the famous Hadith of Najd:

Ibn Umar reported the Prophet (upon whom be blessings and peace) as saying: “Oh God, bless us in our Syria; O God, bless us in our Yemen.” Those present said: “And in our Najd, O Messenger of God!” but he said, “O God, bless us in our Syria; O God, bless us in our Yemen.” Those present said, “And in our Najd, O Messenger of God!”. Ibn Umar said that he thought that he said on the third occasion: “Earthquakes and dissensions (fitna) are there, and there shall arise the horn of the devil.”[14]

And it is significant that almost uniquely among the lands of Islam, Najd has never produced scholars of any repute.

The Najd-based da’wa of the Wahhabis, however, began to be heard more loudly following the explosion of Saudi oil wealth. Many, even most, Islamic publishing houses in Cairo and Beirut are now subsidised by Wahhabi organisations, which prevent them from publishing traditional works on Sufism, and remove passages in other works considered unacceptable to Wahhabist doctrine.

The neo-Kharijite nature of Wahhabism makes it intolerant of all other forms of Islamic expression. However, because it has no coherent fiqh of its own – it rejects the orthodox madhhabs – and has only the most basic and primitively anthropomorphic aqida, it has a fluid, amoebalike tendency to produce divisions and subdivisions among those who profess it. No longer are the Islamic groups essentially united by a consistent madhhab and the Ash’ari [or Maturidi] aqida. Instead, they are all trying to derive the shari’a and the aqida from the Quran and the Sunna by themselves. The result is the appalling state of division and conflict which disfigures the modern salafi condition.

At this critical moment in our history, the umma has only one realistic hope for survival, and that is to restore the ‘middle way’, defined by that sophisticated classical consensus which was worked out over painful centuries of debate and scholarship. That consensus alone has the demonstrable ability to provide a basis for unity. But it can only be retrieved when we improve the state of our hearts, and fill them with the Islamic virtues of affection, respect, tolerance and reconciliation. This inner reform, which is the traditional competence of Sufism, is a precondition for the restoration of unity in the Islamic movement. The alternative is likely to be continued, and agonising, failure.

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British convert to Islam, Abdal-Hakim Murad, was born in 1960 in London. He was educated Cambridge University (MA Arabic), and at al-Azhar University, the highest seat of learning in Sunni Islam.  He has studied under traditional Islamic scholars in Cairo and Jeddah, including Shaykh Ahmad Mashhur al-Haddad, and Shaykh Ismail al-Adawi.  Abdal-Hakim Murad has translated several classical Arabic works, including Imam al-Bayhaqi’s ‘Seventy-Seven Branches of Faith’, and ‘Selections from the Fath al-Bari’. He is also the Trustee and Secretary of The Muslim Academic Trust and Director of The Anglo-Muslim Fellowship for Eastern Europe.

 

Read other articles by Abdal-Hakim Murad on this site here.

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NOTES

1. Sura 13:11.

2. For a further analysis of this passage, see Habib Ahmad Mashhur al-Haddad, Key to the Garden (Quilliam Press, London 1990 CE), 78-81.

3. Sura 26:89. The archetype is Abrahamic: see Sura 37:84.

4. This hadith is in fact an instance of takhsis al-amm: a frequent procedure of usul al-fiqh by which an apparently unqualified statement is qualified to avoid the contradiction of another necessary principle. See Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Reliance of the Traveller, tr. Nuh Ha Mim Keller (Abu Dhabi, 1991 CE), 907-8 for some further examples.

5. Ibn Asakir, Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari (Damascus, 1347), 97.

6. Cited in Muhammad al-Jurdani, al-Jawahir al-lu’lu’iyya fi sharh al-Arba’in al-Nawawiya (Damascus, 1328), 220-1.

7. 17:85.

8. 79:40.

9. al-Qushayri, al-Risala (Cairo, n.d.), I, 393.

10. al-Zabidi, Ithaf al-sada al-muttaqin (Cairo, 1311), I, 27.

11. Sha’rani, al-Tabaqat al-Kubra (Cairo, 1374), I, 4.

12. It is true that Ibn Kathir in his Bidaya is critical of some later Sufis. Nonetheless, in his Mawlid, which he asked his pupils to recite on the occasion of the Blessed Prophet’s birthday each year, he makes his personal debt to a conservative and sober Sufism quite clear.

13. See G. Makdisi’s article ‘Ibn Taymiyya: A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order’ in the American Journal of Arabic Studies, 1973.

14. Narrated by Bukhari. The translation is from J. Robson, Mishkat al-Masabih (Lahore, 1970), II, 1380.

Melody Of Nusantara

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

نحمده ونصلى على رسوله الكريم

MELODY FROM NUSANTARA

***

To those who love I present Sunni intellectual way

In the Malay World beloved land far away

Embracing all countenance of knowing traditional and rational way

All manner of knowing – divine and human mental sway

Guaranteeing Truth acts honour and man’s worthy way

In globalization values and morals withering away

***

Knowledge begins as lights from One Most Knowing

Then touching universal reason – manifesting revealing

Descending to human recipient prophetic receptacle receiving

Moving then unto human reason purified being

Crystalizing as pearls treasure in Sunni way of knowing

Combining in totality traditional and rational path perceiving

***

Within this ocean dive the learned in sacred sciences

From the Companions the blessed to ones like Ash’aris

Continuing with Baqillani to al-Ghazali and al-Razi

Truly including al-Shafi’I and the mujtahids all Sunnies

Therein ibn Khaldun among learned in rational sciences

Also Suyuti up to Waliyullah al-Dihlawi

***

In Sunni World here there is al-Raniri ‘Abd al-Rauf also al-Fansuri

Also al-Falimbani again al-Banjari  again Yusuf Makasari

Continuing with Daud Ahmad and Zain al-Fatani

Rows of them the learned divines of the Sunnies

Presenters of the creed, sacred laws, morals, rationality, spirituality

In constellation stars in knowing among Sunnies

***

Sunni frame in knowing total harmonizing

Capable of salvation for morals and heart realizing

Curing the malady of minds confused in fever suffering

So many suffering seriously yet choosing the way of covering

Sunni way giving safety in faith values and morals in behaving

Facing fatal trials while globalizing

***

Only through these truth in faith be solved

Including about God in servitude devotions involved

Values on good and evil in life resolved

As in the adage ‘life is based on customs followed

Customs based on Sacred Law hallowed

Sacred law based on Scripture obeyed’

***

Through their intelligence pearls of knowledge more than thousand years

Strength for handhold human intelligence anchored on sustained views

Giving conviction confidence to man in cultures with conflicts

In age of postmodern culture clashing without ends

In age when power of Satan serenading false melodies

Come we take shelter for safety under shades

***

In culture of dialogues we need certainty

The axis determining truth direction and equity

Without Sunni mode of knowing constituting truth sustainability

We drift away to the coasts of destruction cultural calamity

Sans meanings sans directions sans identity

Bereft of honour enemies victorious we in bankruptcy

***

Together in this meeting in Bangi we arrive at the decision

Determine Sunni frame of knowing guaranteeing salvation

Combining within it the welfare of the world and eternal salvation

Enhancing philosophy of knowing in religion and worldly life estimation

Combining works of reason the senses with guidance of revelation

That is the path the one only with acts saving civilization

***

Come we save the Malay World this Sunni region

We choose the frame for way of knowing for saving the religion

Facing the West those against reality of human welfare

Empowering all strength from revelation prophecy and human reason

Combined within it sharpness in intellectual penetration, taqwa and morals in iman

Realizing the life of a servant of the One being His vicegerent

***

This is the path one only coming from the One Creator

Teaching mankind life of devotion not in disobedience

Providing the way good and evil values stable with power

Way of life civilization complete ready

Combining strength of reason the heart and senses

Bestowing manner of knowing securing life of safety and success

***

From God we make supplications for blessings and clemency

Our gathering bestowed with guidance and mercy

So that this will recur in the land showered with mercy

In the Nusantara with history promoting learning in plenty

This being continuous guidance for the region for the Community

Guidance in the age when civilization and culture ravaged by infamy

***

Composed by the Roving Preacher of the Malay World 23^rd of August 2001

Composed in English – the Second Conference of Islamic Thought UKM 6^th Oct.2009.

To be recited in the Bilik Senat UKM on 6^th Oct 2009

Mainstream Islamic Intellectual Discourse and The Malay World: Issues and Perspectives

MAINSTREAM ISLAMIC INTELLECTUAL DISCOURSE AND THE MALAY WORLD: ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

By:

Muhammad ‘Uthman El-Muhammady[1]

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

نحمده ونصلى على رسوله الكريم

This paper argues that the Malay-Indonesian World should maintain its adherence to and benefit from the ethical, spiritual, intellectual and cultural guidance of the Islamic mainstream Sunni discourse which has for so long been the core of its culture and civilization apart from its adherence to the local customary practices. This mainstream universal Islamic discourse can be seen as to be represented by the  four universal themes of Islamic intellectuality: the theological, crystallizing in the Ash’ari-Maturidi theological school; the spiritual, ethical and philosophical stance in the school of al-Ghazali and those like him; in the modern world that of Sai’d Nursi; the legal crystallizing in the  legal narratives of the mujtahid imams; for the Malay World that of Imam al-Shafi’i, and finally the cultural and civilizational crystallizing in the Khaldunian discourse; in the modern era that of Malik Bennabi which can be considered as the prolongation of  the Khaldunian discourse. Then there should be the additional relevant input from the best intellectual and cultural experience of the modern world. This is for a number of most pressing reasons: for maintaining the guaranteed eternal saving truths of the Islamic message, for intellectual homogeneity, for ethical, moral and spiritual stability, for performing the stable foundation of the ummatic civilization, and, of course, for facing the onslaught of philosophic and ethical modernity and postmodernity – Allah willing – without losing out. Issues and perspectives involved in these themes will be considered.

THE DISCOURSE

What is meant by mainstream intellectual discourse of Islam here is that religious discourse of the great majority of scholars of Islamic sacred scholarship covering various fields of learning: like Qur’anic and its sciences, the traditions and its sciences, the classical theology in kalam, discourse on spirituality in tasawwuf, the legal discourse in classical fiqh, including the new legal rulings made by the jurists and included into this discourse on historical and civilizational issues. This discourse is characterized by the intellectual stance of understanding revelation and prophecy through the mediation of the epistemological construct and its methodology throughout the centuries. This position is fundamentally related to a number of principles determining the nature of this discourse: the Absolute Being,  being al-Haqq,[2] the Absolute Truth, He Being on the Straight Divine Axis,[3] He being the Preserver (al-Muhaimin)[4] [of beings, things, meanings], then the Qur’anic revelation itself as muhaiminan ‘alaihi[5] being guardian over fundamental meanings of Divine Revelation in history, the principle of consensus in the verse on sabil al-mu’minin,[6] the role of the mujtahids,  the existence  and function of consensus (ijma’),  the appearance of the mujaddids at the head of Muslim century.[7] Then the prophetic guarantee about the continuous existence of a group in my community who will be prominently victorious on the truth until the Day of Judgment, those who differ from them will not be able to harm them.[8]

Mainstream theological discourse[9] preeminently  means the accepted theological discourse of figures like al-Ash’ari, al-Maturidi, al-Tahawi, Imam Abu Hanifah, Imam Shafi’i, al-Baqillani, al-Baghdadi, Imam al-Haramayn, al-Ghazali, al-Razi and so on until the spread of the theological texts of Umm al-Barahin, Jawharah of al-Laqqani and so on within the mainstream discourse. This covers fundamental discussions of God, Divine Nature, Attributes, Acts, manifestations in sacred history, prophecy, its function reality and nature, the angelic world, its nature, functions, revelation, the prophets and messengers, their reality, nature and functions, the hereafter, its reality, nature and function, the divine governance expressed in Divine Decree and Pre-Measurement. These realities remain, and will not cease to be. The discussions and proofs can come from revealed texts, human reasoning, the realm of nature, science, Quantum Theory, whatever. But they shall continuously be, and will not cease to be; in the nature of things, as has been so well stated, in the nature of things, it is the human who must conform to the Divine and not the Divine to the human, with all the attending intellectual and spiritual consequences.

In the domain of spirituality, the mainstream discourse in this  field is guided by  discourses of figures like Junaid al-Baghdadi, al-Qushairi, al-Ghazali, with his magisterial Ihya,  al-Jilani, al-Shadhili, and others and for those who can appreciate their real position within the ambiance of this discourse, Ibn ‘Arabi and Jalal al-Din Rumi (provided their statements are understood while anchored to the moorings of this mainstream discourse).[10] These works portray not philosophical systems but results of spiritual witnessing and not mere mental speculations of the thinker in the modern provincial sense of those who have lost their sense of the sacred and the transcendent. In modern times the work of Sa’id Nursi does provide guidance in this domain-him being a figure with a masterly grasp of mainstream classical discourse, intimate knowledge and understanding of science and technology, with authentic spiritual vision and realization, and intense educational and social activism.

In the domain of spiritual ethics, again the above figures with their discourses do guide those who are the adherents of the mainstream discourse in their ethical life in the most profound way. The spiritual ethics of al-Qushairi can be seen in his Risalah al-Qushairiyyah that of al-Ghazali of course is in the Ihya’, the Minhaj al-‘Abidin, the al-Munqidh min al-Dadal and at the deepest level, can be found in the al-Madnun (which is being edited by our young scholar al-Akiti, at the University of Oxford). The philosophical views of al-Ghazali can be seen in the Tahafut al-Falasifah and Maqasid al-Falasifah.

In the domain of Islamic sacred law, mainstream discourse is found in the views of the mujtahid imams of the four schools and their adherents. All this is relevant for contemporary times. For the Malay World the Shafi’i school is the dominant legal school which is being loyally adhered to, with a number of minor departures in some details of the law.[11]

In the domain of culture and civilization, mainstream discourse can be found in the works of Ibn Khaldun (the Muqaddimah), and those of Malik Bennabi. The  diverse subjects discoursed in this sacred community[12] is reflected in al-Fihrist of Ibn Nadim,  the  Kitab al-Sa’adah of Tashkopruzade, discussed in al-Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun, with the technical terms elucidated in such works, among others as the monumental Kashshat Istilahat al-Funnun of ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Tahanawi.[13]

ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

When we come to the question of the position of Islamic mainstream discourse in the Malay World, we find that this has been discussed in an engaging manner in that important work Modern Trends in Islamic Theological Discourses in Twentieth Century Indonesia: A Critical Survey by Fauzan Saleh[14] We can touch on some of the important issues in the work later. The other work Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World by Peter Riddell[15] gives very summarized situation of the Islamic discourse in the Malay-Indonesian World, of course with no special focus on the notion of mainstream intellectual discourse as such. Nevertheless it is a useful work giving a summary of the intellectual situation. Only that the present writer feels other dimensions from the Malaysia scene should addressed.

We have  seen this mainstream discourse in the Malay-Indonesian World in the theological texts like Matan al-Jawharah of al-Laqqani, the Bidayatul Hidayah of Shamsuddin  of Acheh, the elaborations of texts of Umm al-Barahin and others, the texts ranging from the simple Faridah al-Fara’id of Ahmad al-Fatani to the possibly most   massive theological work Ward al-Zawahir of Shaikh Daud al-Fatani, then ‘Aqidatul-Najin of Shaykh Zayn al-‘Abidin al-Fatani and others. The mainstream position in theological domain is also reflected in the Tuhfah al-Raghibin of Shaykh Arsyad al-Banjari dealing with various deviationist groups which are at variance with the accepted mainstream discourse of the community.[16]

In relation to this discussion on mainstream discourse and its realization in the Malay World there are a number of concerns like the following:

• Rejection of ta’wil for mutashabihat elements in the Qur’an and Sunnah, whereas the salaf also did use ta’wil[17] whenever necessary; not using ta’wil will make certain expressions not understandable to the  common believer; so the  choice is between tafwid submission and acceptance, leaving the meanings and reality to Allah or ta’wil for the common man of belief to avoid  leading people to heresy of attributing attributes of creation to God.
• The intellectual attitude of rejection of the use of elements from philosophy in theological discussions considering this as bid’ah; mainstream position permits its use whenever necessity demands; reasoning has to use tools, like logic, terms or  jauhar, arad – like now substance, accidents, atoms, quarks, electrons and etc even though the Prophet saw did not use it for obvious reasons to person of sound reason. Use of logic has been considered as part of the meanings of the hadith which reads wisdom is the lost property of the believer, wherever he finds it he is most entitled to it by al-Munawi in his commentary of the Jami al-Saghir of al-Suyuti.
• The accusation that there is rejection of philosophy totally, leading to intellectual sterility, something not compatible with the intellectual aspirations of a man like al-Ghazali and others like him.
• Division of tauhid into various categories such as tawhid rubiyyah, uluhiyyah and asma’ wa al-sifat in total isolation, hence leading to the attribution of  shirk to tawassul and so on; a stance not found in mainstream discourse, with  the practical consequences in history and life. The Qur’anic verses taken as proofs for this stance are not valid (al-‘Ankabut, 65) etc.
• The claim of some quarters that  secularism has prevailed  in the Malay World  and elsewhere in the Muslim World leading to wholesale apostasy, collective apostasy etc, what are the implications? The  coming of the British to Malaya brought secularism and etc (with the theologico-spiritual  consequence with Turkey as an exception, with her Principles of Kemalism)
• See the concept of secularism as defined by George J. Holyoake.[18] “Secularism is the study of promoting human welfare by material means; measuring human welfare by the utilitarian rule, and making the service of others a duty of life. Secularism relates to the present existence of man, and to action, the issues of which can be tested by the experience of this life – having for its objects the development of the physical, moral, and intellectual nature of man to the highest perceivable point, as the immediate duty of society: inculcating the practical sufficiency of natural morality apart from Atheism, Theism, or Christianity: engaging its adherents in the promotion of human improvement by material means, and making these agreements the ground of common unity for all who would regulate life by reason and ennoble it by service. The Secular is sacred in its influence on life, for by purity of material conditions the loftiest natures are best sustained, and the lower the most surely elevated. Secularism is a series of principles intended for the guidance of those who find Theology indefinite, or inadequate, or deem it unreliable. It replaces theology, which mainly regards life as a sinful necessity, as a scene of tribulation through which we pass to a better world. Secularism rejoices in this life, and regards it as the sphere of those duties which educate men to fitness for any future and better life, should such transpire.”[19] To the present writer of this paper this has nothing to do with Malaysia and many other Muslim countries, with the exception of Turkey, which has made secularism as her state philosophy.[20]
• The rejection of classical theology and metaphysics under the influence of postmodernism,  deconstructionism etc, rejection of rigid definitions in theology, of iman-kufr dichotomy, truth-batil  etc considered as ‘irrelevant confrontations’ in intellectual discourse.

In the  domain  of spirituality we have seen the  writings of Shaikh Abd al-Samad al-Falimbani with his Sayr al-Salikin and the Hidayah al-Salikin and others Kan al-Minan Sharah of Hikam Abi Madyan by Shaykh Daud al-Fatani, the translation of Minhaj al-‘Abidin of al-Ghazali by Shaykh Daud al-Fatani and others, then the  writings of Shaikh Yusuf of Maskasar (in Arabic and some already translated into Indonesian  for example by Tudjimah) and other works reflecting mainstream position in spirituality, away from deviationist  leanings.

So with the mainstream epistemological construct in the Malay World, together with its methodology and tools, this remains intellectually and spiritually valid until the present; and all this include matters like revelation, prophecy, human reason and experience, within a system teaching man dimensions of knowing. Other data of knowledge – including contemporary findings and useful interpretations – can be incorporated within it and there is no intellectual necessity for abandoning this intellectual construct in seeking for a better one as alternative for us simply there is no better one. And there is no question of looking for an alternative either, because this is not a matter of looking for something like clothing for the sake of novelty; this is a question touching the substance of the human spirit and intellect.

For example, the epistemological construct of Shafi’i in law and the philosophy of law, has not been intellectually invalidated; new matters should be incorporated into it, new keys can be found for unraveling its discussions, but the framework is valid. The spiritual, ethical and philosophical construct of al-Ghazali is still valid and legitimate; it has never been successfully invalidated intellectually and spiritually; in fact we are indebted to him for such profound discussions on religious matters starting from the philosophical, ethical, spiritual and metaphysical, ranging from al-Munqidh, Tahafut, al-Ihya then Mishkat al-Anwar then al-Madnun.[21]

In fact there is no question of substituting new epistemological constructs to take the place of those narratives, simply because critiques  against them has failed to provide convincing arguments for such substitutions, all the more so those arguments has not been based on authentic understanding  of the previous constructs which are considered as to have been invalidated or intellectually obsolete.

Arguments of being jumud or static and unchanging, stagnant, can be leveled against individuals and certain institutions but not against the authentic expressions of the mainstream discourse itself. So when the issue is seen in the context of the total construct, there is no valid argument against the construct or the discourse itself. Granted there is the necessity for re-understanding the discourse; but there is no argument invalidating it.

The argument about Islamic theology being based on Greek philosophy, or infused with Greek influence, this has to be looked at closely. First Islamic theology in the sense of usul al-din is based on the Qur’an, Hadith, ijma’, and elaborations of those who are knowledgeable in Islamic learning. The theological conclusions are not based on hurried speculations but based on the Qur’an and Sunnah as well as ijma’. Logic was accepted for systematic reasoning and disciplined thinking and writing; that is why al-Munawi the traditionist calls it as one of the meanings of the hadith about the lost property of the believer (dallatul-mu’min).For example the use of such terms as jawhar and ‘arad by Imam Shafi’i for example, this shows the imam’s exposure to the intellectual currents of his day. For us now we should also not be unaware of Quantum Theory in physics etc.

There are other arguments against mainstream theological discourse, arguments against ilm al-kalam quoting the imams as being against this field itself such arguments against kalam are based either on prejudicial interpretations of their statements (Shafi’i’s statements and others against kalam) not in accordance with the context of those statements themselves. For example their statements are not blanket statements covering all of ilm al-kalam, for instance as explained by Imam al-Ghazali, but those which lead people astray  from the correct theological position of mainstream  discourse.

Arguments of bid’ah: arguments against matters seen as reprehensible innovations; yet   when examined in the light of objective mainstream discourse they will be found to be hasty conclusions, immature reasoning, misdirected or not based on thorough understanding of the issues; or just pure fanatical adherence to a certain view closing the mind against other views, coupled with the attitude of rejecting the ethics of differences taught by the imams of the community. Hence the necessity for education in the objective total mainstream discourse legitimized by consensus as well as for education in the etiquette and ethics of handling differences.

Arguments against madhhab: arguments against the emergence of and adherence to the madhhabs in fiqh, usul al-fiqh with their methodologies, if looked deeper into the relevant issues, will speak for their intellectual and positive strength rather than the reverse.

Arguments of backwardness of the community supposedly caused by Islamic sacred sciences: when examined objectively both from the point of view of the authentic expressions of the sciences themselves and the manifestations of such so called impacts will be found to have been half-truths; and many of such matters of such questions are results of half-truths.

Arguments  concerning the negative impact of Sufism on the ummah, apart from the practice and wrongful understanding of that science as explained by the Sufis themselves,  when  scrutinized objectively will be proven to have  been grounded on imperfect or insufficient understanding of that field of discipline, from the authentic original sources, and legitimized in mainstream discourse.

Arguments of Batiniyyah influence in Islamic spirituality: usually are arguments by selected instances, not taking into consideration the total perspective of spirituality; usually they are persuaded by   prejudicial interpretations of data and not objective.

Then arguments against Sufism as pantheism (even by a figure like Iqbal) and others are not based on the authentic understanding of the issues by the recognized Sufis themselves, but rather on prejudicial interpretations of “outsiders” even if these happen to be Muslims, but who have lost real contact with their own tradition and have lost intellectual and cultural confidence vis-à-vis that tradition. So there is the intellectual and spiritual necessity for re-learning this tradition seriously. Of course there is no measure between the spiritual witnessing of the Gnostics (knowers in God) (arifin bi’Llah)   and mere philosophical speculation of the Western pantheists of the 19th century West. But with the loss of real spiritual perspective the arguments carry weight for some writers, including Muslims who have been schooled in that alien intellectual ambiance.

Arguments of extraneous influences on Sufism not from Islamic sources is not based on authentic understanding of the  sources and its intrinsic history, but rather on intellectual fashion influenced by Western scholarship of a certain kind, with the position of always seeing “influences” in things and thoughts, whenever appearances of superficial  similarities are observed,  without considering the inward reality of the ummatic civilization and the dynamics of revelation and the life in the sacred, spiritual illumination, for instance as discussed in Risalah al-Qushairiyyah and even the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun, Qut al-Qulub and Kitab al-Ta’arruf of al-Kalabadhi, among others. Only later some Western scholars have revised some of their views like Arberry and Massignon. This is not to forget also, of course, the works of Martin Lings and others in his group.

Concerning arguments against the authenticity and the history of the text of the Qur’an and the hadith, this has been done by our scholars based on painstaking research into the original sources, including newly found manuscripts, which support the mainstream position of Muslim scholars. Hence the negative position taken by Ignaz Goldziher and Joseph Schacht in such matters has been given the necessary responses by scholars like Hamidullah, Zubayr Siddiqi, Mustafa al-Siba’i, and Mustafa al-A’zami. Yet those   who prefer to choose the path of taqlid in relation to the views of such scholars still   follow those exploded views; among them can be mentioned Mohammed Arkoun of Paris.

In relation to this discussion on mainstream discourse and its realization in the Malay World there are a number of concerns like the following:

• The claim of some quarters that  secularism has prevailed  in the Malay World  and elsewhere in the Muslim World leading to wholesale apostacy, collective apostacy etc…what are the implications? The  coming of the British to Malaya brought secularism…etc (with the theologico-spiritual  consequences… with Turkey as an exception, with her Principles of Kemalism)
• See the concept of secularism as defined by George J. Holyoake.[22] “Secularism is the study of promoting human welfare by material means; measuring human welfare by the utilitarian rule, and making the service of others a duty of life. Secularism relates to the present existence of man, and to action, the issues of which can be tested by the experience of this life – having for its objects the development of the physical, moral, and intellectual nature of man to the highest perceivable point, as the immediate duty of society: inculcating the practical sufficiency of natural morality apart from Atheism, Theism, or Christianity: engaging its adherents in the promotion of human improvement by material means, and making these agreements the ground of common unity for all who would regulate life by reason and ennoble it by service. The Secular is sacred in its influence on life, for by purity of material conditions the loftiest natures are best sustained, and the lower the most surely elevated. Secularism is a series of principles intended for the guidance of those who find Theology indefinite, or inadequate, or deem it unreliable. It replaces theology, which mainly regards life as a sinful necessity, as a scene of tribulation through which we pass to a better world. Secularism rejoices in this life, and regards it as the sphere of those duties which educate men to fitness for any future and better life, should such transpire.”[23] This has nothing to do with Malaysia and other Muslim countries, with the exception of Turkey, which has made secularism as her state philosophy.
• There are matters of spiritual and intellectual concerns which should be addressed effectively and seriously.
• The rejection of epistemological authority in the classical sense.
• The position of taking the Qur’an as product of history and culture like other documents in human history.
• Rejection of hadith, as a product of culture, “projection backwards” theory.
• The rejection of classical theology and metaphysics under the influence of postmodernism,  deconstructionism etc, rejection of rigid definitions in theology, of iman-kufr dichotomy, truth-batil  etc considered as “irrelevant confrontations” in intellectual discourse.
• Rejection of traditional notion of  wahy,  nubuwwah.
• Existence of two parallel system Sharia courts And civil courts now being addressed with various degrees of success and failure in Muslim countries.
• Rejection of schools of Islamic jurisprudence and the claim of ijtihad, the rejection of taqlid or following qualified scholarship  in Islamic legal discourse by “reformists”, “reformers” as compared to the conservative traditionalists
• Kaum Tua-Kaum Muda  controversy of the  1950s and 1960s –coming back under the name of Salafi movement
• The rejection of  classical legal schools of jurisprudence under the influence of thinking along postmodernist lines in Indonesia,  manifested in the intellectual trend of Norcholish Majid, Ulil Abshar Abdalla etc, influence of Arkoun e.g the essay in Liberal Islam A Source Book edited by Charles Kurzman. Thinking that Islamic fiqh is product of culture like other human laws (not infallible , change with the times etc if understood literally, unreservedly then).
• The notion that Islamic sacred law is a product of culture and history like any other aspects of human discourse being  products  of history and culture, hence  time-bound and space-bound
• The people-ulil-amri relationship of classical discourse being replaced by neo-Kharijie position of  the position of rebellion against authority etc
• The interpretation of the verse wa man lam yahkum[24] etc leading to rebellion against authority.

THE WAY FORWARD

• Back to mainstream discourse  with education, da’wah, social  work, dissemination of  publications in mainstream discourse.
• Heal relationship between the ulil-amri and the people.
• Cooperation of all quarters- the authorities,  the media, educationists, professionals.
• Enhance  mainstream discourse through writings, seminars, workshops,  blogs, etc
• Formation of networking for promoting mainstream discourse.
• Research and translations, publications in relation to works on mainstream discourse. Mention can be made of the Islamic Text Society of United Kingdom which is publishing such texts in English.[25]
• Mention can be made of conferences by YADMI-YADIM in Indonesia and Malaysia  since around four years ago leading  to the acceptance of the position that : the Malay World must continue  with mainstream discourse of the People of Tradition and the Community, enhancing this position, taking this discourse as creed, epistemology and civilizational framework. Wal-hamdulillah Rabbi al-‘alamin.

In conclusion it can be suggested that there is certitude, clarity, stability, and coherence in this discourse; and traditional sources tell us in such matters traditional sources only do matter- this is the discourse that is guaranteed to be victorious till the end of time and be sustainable in the intellectual and spiritual sense to the end of early time. Hence  there is the absolute necessity for re-understanding of and  adherence to as well as being enhanced by the four intellectual poles of mainstream discourse: Ash’ari-Maturidi theological discourse, with suitable additional  materials; the Ghazalian spiritual, ethical and philosophical discourse,  with suitable additional materials (in modern times with additional materials from the writings of Badiuzzaman Said Nursi); the Shafi’e legal discourse, and that of  other mujtahids etc, with suitable  additional materials;  the Khaldunian discourse with suitable additional materials in cultural and civilizational discourse (in modern times  with additional materials from the  works of Malik Bennabi).

Wallahu a’lam.

---

[1] This paper is prepared for the Second International Seminar On Islamic Thought, organized by the National University of Malaysia on 6^th October 2009. The author is Very Distinguished Academic Fellow, at the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Board of Directors at the Integrity Institute of Malaysia.

[2] One of the Beautiful Perfect Divine Names of the Asma’ al-Husna

[3] Reference to the verse to the effect Truly my Lord is on the Straight Path (Sirat al-Mustaqim)

[4] Al-Muhaimin being one of the Asma’ al-Husna. Al-Hashr, 23.

[5] Reference to the Qur’anic verse  to the effect standing as a guardian over it (Scripture) determining what is true therein hence its  statements about the Jewish and Christian traditions, correcting their positions in fundamental matters (al-Ma’idah, 48.Tr Tafsir al-Rahman, English version, JAKIM, 2008).

[6] With reference to the verse al-Nisa’,115.

[7] With reference to the tradition related in Abu Daud, “Truly Allah will raise up at the beginning of every century one (reviver man yujaddidu) who will revive the religion of this community.”

[8] Hadith Muslim: (رواه مسلم في كتاب الإمارة، باب قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: ”لاتزال طائفة من أمتي ظاهرين على الحق لا يضرهم من خالفهم” حديث .1926). And hadith Muslim (أخرج مسلم عن معاوية قال سمعت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم  يقول :لا تزال طائفة من أمتى قائمة بأمر الله لا  يضرهم من خذلهم أو خالفهم حتى يأتى أمر الله وهم ظاهرون على الناس))

[9] The spiritual and intellectual ‘temper’ of this discourse has been well summariseby by ‘Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi in his al-Farq bain al-Firaq, Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah,n Beirut,  n.d. especially pp 239- 286, among others. The positions taken can be gleaned from from previous texts of  Imam Abu Hanifah, al-Shafi’I, al-Tahawi, al-Ash’ari, al-Baqillani, al-Juwaini,   with differences in some details; followed later in texts of al-Ghazali, al-Razi, al-Sanusi, al-Laqqani,  Shah Waliyullah al-Dihlawi and so on.

[10] One example of seeing Ibn ‘Arabi  anchored to the mainstream discourse  can be done for instance as elucidated, among many others,  in easily accessible and  very useful and informative article ‘Shaykh Muhyi al-Din Ibn Arabi in the site http://www.sunnah.org/aqida/gh/ibnarabi/ibnarabi.htm with the necessary references.

[11] Like the payment of cash for ‘zakat fitrah’  and other matters especially in relation to economic and financial transactions.

[12] Of course  we are not forgetting the monumental work of Carl Brockelmann the well known GAL with the  supplement volumes.

[13] Kashshaf Istilahat al-Funun A Dictionary of the Technical Terms used in The Sciences of the Musalmans, edited by Mawlawies Mohammad Wajih, Abd al-Haqq and Gholam Kadir under the superentendance  of Dr Aloys Sprenger , M.D., Ph.D. and Captain W.Nassau  Lees, LLD. Published by The Asiatic Society of Bengal, under the series of Bibliotheca Indica, A Collection of Oriental Works, Old Series,   printed at W.N.Lee’s Press, 1862.

[14] Publisher: Brill, Boston, 2001.

[15] Horizon Books, Singapore, 2003 (reprinted from 2001 edition)

[16] Concerning the contents of this work this can be dseen in the paper presented by the present writer entitled Pendidikan dan Da’wah oleh Syaykh Muhammad Arsyad al-Banjari (r.a.) presented in the Regional Seminar On Shaykh Muhammad Arshad Al-Banjari – Seminar Serantau Sheikh Muhammad Arsyah al Banjari – at Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan from 4^th October  2003. This conference was organized jointly by ABIM, DBP Malaysia, IAIN Antasari Banjarmasin, Majlis Ulama Propinsi Kalimantan Selatan and Badan Pengelola Masjid Raya Sabil al-Muhtadin with the cooperation of  Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Universiti Putra Malaysia, Akademi Kajian Ketamadunan dan Persatuan Ulama Kedah. Important data among others are accessed through the good offices of our late Brother  Tuan Haji Wan Mohd Shaghir bin Abdullah, who has managed to gather much materials  with so much labour of love. Kaththara’Llahu amthalah. Amin.

[17] For example the ‘leader of the Salaf generation’ al-Tabari uses ta’wil for a number of mutashabihat verses of the Qur’an in his tafsir.

[18] In the work  Principles of Secularism by George Jacob Holyoake,1870, 3^rd edition revised, London, Austin & Co, 17, Johnson’s Court Fleet Street.

[19] Chapter III p.11.

[20] There is even the intellectually indefensible stance stating that Mu’awiyah –Allah be pleased with him- was the one who started secularism in Islamic history, and that the Umayyad dynasty was a ‘secular government’. Subhana’Llah. Where are the thought-categories of our people in the ummah based on the pervasive ‘ahkam khamsah’? We seemed to have borrowed an alien thought-category to the point ofd losing grasp of our own.

[21] Recollecting a private discussion with our brother Dr al-Akiti of Oxford about a month ago in Kuala Lumpur.

[22] In the work  ‘Principles of Secularism’ by George Jacob Holyoake,1870,3^{RD edition, revised, London:Austin & Co, 17, Johnson’Court, Fleet Street..}

[23] Chapter III p.11.

[24] Al-Ma’idah: 47, 48, 50 the understanding of which should be referred to mainstream theological discourse and exegesis, and not personal musings.

[25] The present writer recently presented a paper ‘The Sustainability of the Translation Field: The case of Mainstream Islamic Intellectual Discourse’,(18^th August, Hotel Park Royal, Penang, 11.00-12,00 noon) ; it is published  in proceedings of the 12^th International Conference On Translation 2009 entitled, The Sustainability of the Translation Field, eds.Hasuria Che Omar Ph.D, Haslina Haroon, Ph.D., Aniswal Abd.Ghani, Ph.D., published by Persatuan Penterjemah Malaysia, 2009 pp.22-27; it is accepted as one of the 5 plenary papers.

How Islamic inventors changed the world

[www.1001inventions.com]

From coffee to cheques and the three-course meal, the Muslim world has given us many innovations that we take for granted in daily life. As a new exhibition opens, Paul Vallely nominates 20 of the most influential- and identifies the men of genius behind them
14 March 2006

1 The story goes that an Arab named Khalid was tending his goats in the Kaffa region of southern Ethiopia, when he noticed his animals became livelier after eating a certain berry. He boiled the berries to make the first coffee. Certainly the first record of the drink is of beans exported from Ethiopia to Yemen where Sufis drank it to stay awake all night to pray on special occasions. By the late 15th century it had arrived in Mecca and Turkey from where it made its way to Venice in 1645. It was brought to England in 1650 by a Turk named Pasqua Rosee who opened the first coffee house in Lombard Street in the City of London. The Arabic qahwa became the Turkish kahve then the Italian caffé and then English coffee.

2 The ancient Greeks thought our eyes emitted rays, like a laser, which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th-century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haitham. He invented the first pin-hole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters. The smaller the hole, the better the picture, he worked out, and set up the first Camera Obscura (from the Arab word qamara for a dark or private room). He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one.

3 A form of chess was played in ancient India but the game was developed into the form we know it today in Persia. From there it spread westward to Europe – where it was introduced by the Moors in Spain in the 10th century – and eastward as far as Japan. The word rook comes from the Persian rukh, which means chariot.

4 A thousand years before the Wright brothers a Muslim poet, astronomer, musician and engineer named Abbas ibn Firnas made several attempts to construct a flying machine. In 852 he jumped from the minaret of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba using a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts. He hoped to glide like a bird. He didn’t. But the cloak slowed his fall, creating what is thought to be the first parachute, and leaving him with only minor injuries. In 875, aged 70, having perfected a machine of silk and eagles’ feathers he tried again, jumping from a mountain. He flew to a significant height and stayed aloft for ten minutes but crashed on landing – concluding, correctly, that it was because he had not given his device a tail so it would stall on landing. Baghdad international airport and a crater on the Moon are named after him.

5 Washing and bathing are religious requirements for Muslims, which is perhaps why they perfected the recipe for soap which we still use today. The ancient Egyptians had soap of a kind, as did the Romans who used it more as a pomade. But it was the Arabs who combined vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil. One of the Crusaders’ most striking characteristics, to Arab nostrils, was that they did not wash. Shampoo was introduced to England by a Muslim who opened Mahomed’s Indian Vapour Baths on Brighton seafront in 1759 and was appointed Shampooing Surgeon to Kings George IV and William IV.

6 Distillation, the means of separating liquids through differences in their boiling points, was invented around the year 800 by Islam’s foremost scientist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, who transformed alchemy into chemistry, inventing many of the basic processes and apparatus still in use today – liquefaction, crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration. As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he invented the alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic spirits (although drinking them is haram, or forbidden, in Islam). Ibn Hayyan emphasised systematic experimentation and was the founder of modern chemistry.

7 The crank-shaft is a device which translates rotary into linear motion and is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, not least the internal combustion engine. One of the most important mechanical inventions in the history of humankind, it was created by an ingenious Muslim engineer called al-Jazari to raise water for irrigation. His 1206 Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices shows he also invented or refined the use of valves and pistons, devised some of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and was the father of robotics. Among his 50 other inventions was the combination lock.

8 Quilting is a method of sewing or tying two layers of cloth with a layer of insulating material in between. It is not clear whether it was invented in the Muslim world or whether it was imported there from India or China. But it certainly came to the West via the Crusaders. They saw it used by Saracen warriors, who wore straw-filled quilted canvas shirts instead of armour. As well as a form of protection, it proved an effective guard against the chafing of the Crusaders’ metal armour and was an effective form of insulation – so much so that it became a cottage industry back home in colder climates such as Britain and Holland.

9 The pointed arch so characteristic of Europe’s Gothic cathedrals was an invention borrowed from Islamic architecture. It was much stronger than the rounded arch used by the Romans and Normans, thus allowing the building of bigger, higher, more complex and grander buildings. Other borrowings from Muslim genius included ribbed vaulting, rose windows and dome-building techniques. Europe’s castles were also adapted to copy the Islamic world’s – with arrow slits, battlements, a barbican and parapets. Square towers and keeps gave way to more easily defended round ones. Henry V’s castle architect was a Muslim.

10 Many modern surgical instruments are of exactly the same design as those devised in the 10th century by a Muslim surgeon called al-Zahrawi. His scalpels, bone saws, forceps, fine scissors for eye surgery and many of the 200 instruments he devised are recognisable to a modern surgeon. It was he who discovered that catgut used for internal stitches dissolves away naturally (a discovery he made when his monkey ate his lute strings) and that it can be also used to make medicine capsules. In the 13th century, another Muslim medic named Ibn Nafis described the circulation of the blood, 300 years before William Harvey discovered it. Muslims doctors also invented anaesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes and developed hollow needles to suck cataracts from eyes in a technique still used today.

11 The windmill was invented in 634 for a Persian caliph and was used to grind corn and draw up water for irrigation. In the vast deserts of Arabia, when the seasonal streams ran dry, the only source of power was the wind which blew steadily from one direction for months. Mills had six or 12 sails covered in fabric or palm leaves. It was 500 years before the first windmill was seen in Europe.

12 The technique of inoculation was not invented by Jenner and Pasteur but was devised in the Muslim world and brought to Europe from Turkey by the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul in 1724. Children in Turkey were vaccinated with cowpox to fight the deadly smallpox at least 50 years before the West discovered it.

13 The fountain pen was invented for the Sultan of Egypt in 953 after he demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes. It held ink in a reservoir and, as with modern pens, fed ink to the nib by a combination of gravity and capillary action.

14 The system of numbering in use all round the world is probably Indian in origin but the style of the numerals is Arabic and first appears in print in the work of the Muslim mathematicians al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi around 825. Algebra was named after al-Khwarizmi’s book, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, much of whose contents are still in use. The work of Muslim maths scholars was imported into Europe 300 years later by the Italian mathematician Fibonacci. Algorithms and much of the theory of trigonometry came from the Muslim world. And Al-Kindi’s discovery of frequency analysis rendered all the codes of the ancient world soluble and created the basis of modern cryptology.

15 Ali ibn Nafi, known by his nickname of Ziryab (Blackbird) came from Iraq to Cordoba in the 9th century and brought with him the concept of the three-course meal – soup, followed by fish or meat, then fruit and nuts. He also introduced crystal glasses (which had been invented after experiments with rock crystal by Abbas ibn Firnas – see No 4).

16 Carpets were regarded as part of Paradise by medieval Muslims, thanks to their advanced weaving techniques, new tinctures from Islamic chemistry and highly developed sense of pattern and arabesque which were the basis of Islam’s non-representational art. In contrast, Europe’s floors were distinctly earthly, not to say earthy, until Arabian and Persian carpets were introduced. In England, as Erasmus recorded, floors were “covered in rushes, occasionally renewed, but so imperfectly that the bottom layer is left undisturbed, sometimes for 20 years, harbouring expectoration, vomiting, the leakage of dogs and men, ale droppings, scraps of fish, and other abominations not fit to be mentioned”. Carpets, unsurprisingly, caught on quickly.

17 The modern cheque comes from the Arabic saqq, a written vow to pay for goods when they were delivered, to avoid money having to be transported across dangerous terrain. In the 9th century, a Muslim businessman could cash a cheque in China drawn on his bank in Baghdad.

18 By the 9th century, many Muslim scholars took it for granted that the Earth was a sphere. The proof, said astronomer Ibn Hazm, “is that the Sun is always vertical to a particular spot on Earth”. It was 500 years before that realisation dawned on Galileo. The calculations of Muslim astronomers were so accurate that in the 9th century they reckoned the Earth’s circumference to be 40,253.4km – less than 200km out. The scholar al-Idrisi took a globe depicting the world to the court of King Roger of Sicily in 1139.

19 Though the Chinese invented saltpetre gunpowder, and used it in their fireworks, it was the Arabs who worked out that it could be purified using potassium nitrate for military use. Muslim incendiary devices terrified the Crusaders. By the 15th century they had invented both a rocket, which they called a “self-moving and combusting egg”, and a torpedo – a self-propelled pear-shaped bomb with a spear at the front which impaled itself in enemy ships and then blew up.

20 Medieval Europe had kitchen and herb gardens, but it was the Arabs who developed the idea of the garden as a place of beauty and meditation. The first royal pleasure gardens in Europe were opened in 11th-century Muslim Spain. Flowers which originated in Muslim gardens include the carnation and the tulip.

“1001 Inventions: Discover the Muslim Heritage in Our World” is a new exhibition which began a nationwide tour this week. It is currently at the Science Museum in Manchester. For more information, go to www.1001inventions.com.

The University: For The Empowerment Of The Human Heart And The Intellect

THE UNIVERSITY: FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF

THE HUMAN HEART AND THE INTELLECT

BY

MUHAMMAD ‘UTHMAN EL-MUHAMMADY

• We can envisage man as being at once endowed with the faculties of the heart and the potentialities of the intellect and the development of both determines the personality of the total man and the quality of the inner and outer life which emerges forth from the educational process involved.
• The development of the intellect can be seen in the educational process which develops the rational faculty (the ‘aql) seen as the ray from the total Intellect which touches the human subject making him capable of conceiving of the absolute and the relative, the necessary and the contingent, the substance and the form, the kernel and the outer shell, quality and quantity, the beginning and the end of things. This determines the blessedness and the meaning of existence and life and also the final ends for the human subject.
• The development of the heart (the qalb of the Qur’an and the Islamic Tradition) determines the success of the educational process leading to the emergence of the human spiritual core   characterized by clarity and breadth of spiritual vision, the purity of character and the realization of the virtues, the life of spiritual and devotional collectedness freeing the human subject from the woes of mental feverishness and agitation, and hence leading the development of the total man characterized by serenity of spirit and clarity of perception.
• This message is clear from the statement of the Qur’an to the effect: “Verily We have apportioned for the Hell Fire many from among the jinn and mankind, they have hearts (qulub, the plural of qalb) but they do not understand, they have ears but they do not hear, they have eyes but they do not see, they are like cattle, (in fact) they are worse in misguidance”.
• This is envisaged clearly in the Islamic tradition from the saying of the Prophet of Islam – peace and blessings be upon him – “Verily there is in man  a lump of flesh, if it is sound, then the whole person (al-jasad) is sound, if it is unsound, the  whole person is unsound, verily it is the heart”. This heart refers to the spiritual and intellectual core of the human personality the development of which results in the proper and balanced development of the total human personality.
• The empowerment of the heart in this tradition is seen in the process of imparting the total fundamental truth contained in the Islamic testimony meaning “There is  no deity except Allah (the Absolute), and Muhammad is the envoy of Allah”. The first statement refers to all truths about the Absolute, the second about the Prophet, and also by extension about the whole cosmic manifestation in so far as the prophet symbolizes the total cosmic manifestation
• From this fundamental and saving truth taught  and hence realized man will be able to see all other relative and contingent truths in the balanced perspective, therefore placing him on the Divine Axis, freeing him from dissipation and spiritual and intellectual rebellion against his own pristine primordial nature in which God has moulded him
• From this realization, the rational and quantitative sciences and all the branches of arts taught will be placed  in an integrating focus in the epistemology leading to the wholesome development of the deep hearted man of pure faith, and virtues, the intellectual man of action struggling for the salvation of himself and his nation and community – in fact for the whole of mankind, seeing that the fundamental and saving truth is meant for all mankind
• The combination of knowledge as integral to human right actions is clear from the prayer taught by the Prophet – peace and blessings be upon him – when he says: ”O Lord,  show us the truth as truth and make us put it into practice, and show us the false as false and make us avoid it”. Hence knowledge is not merely known but to be made a part of the practice in the human personality.
• This  combination of profound faith and purity of morals, masterly grasp and understanding of the sciences and the arts – to the suitable level of the person concerned – together with the expertise of the seasoned worker, will prepare the citizen of the nation and the world for facing life challenges of the millennium – together with globalization, God willing. This is our collective vocation in education – even more in the tertiary level, since error at this level spells far-reaching negative consequences for our national cultural and intellectual development
• In short, the educational ideal is such that it actualizes in the individual the intellectual, moral, spiritual and physical potentialities in helping to develop our culture and civilization in accordance with our world-view, epistemology and axiology, based on our belief in God, and that we are capable of maintaining this identity and we play our role in determining the directions of the globalization process, God willing.
• Hence, when we come to the university at the undergraduate level this ideal must be clearly focused in exposing the students  to their subjects of study. They must be trained to be men of faith and strong morality and character, and they must be educated to be committed to the idealism of gaining strong mastery of their subjects, together with the necessary expertise in the subjects concerned.
• The more advanced levels of education and research in the arts and the sciences prepare the specialists for their various fields necessary for the advancement of civilization, the total welfare of man, and the survival of our cultural and civilizational identity in this age of globalization and borderless world.

Ibn Khaldun (rh) on the functions of  the crafts, writing and thinking:

In relation to the  functions of writing, thinking and experience in the process of moulding the development of the human substance, we find the statements of Ibn Khaldun rh in the “al-Muqaddimah” enlightening; he says:

We have already mentioned in the book that the rational soul (the thinking and rational aspect of the soul) exists in man only potentially. Its transformation from potentiality into actuality is effected first by new sciences and perceptions derived from the sensibilia, and then by the latter acquisition (of knowledge) through the speculative power. Eventually it becomes to be actual perception and pure intellect. Thus it becomes a spiritual essence, and its existence then reaches perfection.

Therefore it is necessary that each kind of learning and speculation should provide (the rational soul) with additional intelligence. Now, the crafts and the habit of (the crafts) always lead to the obtainment of scientific norms, which result from the habit. Therefore any experience provides intelligence. The habits of the crafts provide intelligence.  Perfect sedentary culture provides intelligence because it is a conglomerate of crafts characterized by concern for the (domestic) economy, contact with one’s fellow men, attainment of education through mixing with (one’s fellow men), and also administration of religious matters and understanding the ways and conditions governing them. All these (factors) are norms (of how to do things) which, properly arranged, constitutes scientific disciplines. Thus, an increase in intelligence results from them.

In this respect writing is the most useful craft because, in contrast to the (other) crafts, it deals with matters of theoretical, scientific interest. This is explained through (the circumstance) that writing involves a transition from the forms of the written letters to the verbal expressions in the imagination, and from the verbal expression in the imagination to the concepts (underlying them), which are in the soul. The writer, thus, goes from one indication to another, as long as he is wrapped up in writing, and the soul become used to the constant (repetition of the process).  Thus it acquires the habit of going over from the indications to the things meant by them. This is what is meant by intellectual speculation, by means of which the knowledge (hitherto) unknown sciences is provided. As the result of being accustomed to the process of going (over from the indications to the things indicated by them) people acquire the habit of intellection, which constitutes an increase in intelligence and provides an additional insight into affairs and a shrewd understanding of them …

Concerning the position of man and the importance of his faculty of thought Ibn Khaldun says:

It should be known that God distinguished man from all the other animals by an ability to think which he made the beginning of human perfection and the end of man’s noble superiority over existing things.

This comes about as follows: Perception-that is consciousness, on the part of the person who perceives, in his essence of things that are outside his essence – is something peculiar to living beings to the exclusion of all other being: and existing things. Living beings may obtain consciousness of things  that are outside their essence through the external  senses God has given them, that is, the senses of hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch. Man has this advantage over the other beings that he may perceive things that he may perceive things outside his essence through his ability to think, which is something beyond his senses. It is the result of (special) powers placed in the cavities in his brain. With the help of these powers man takes the pictures of the sensibilia, applies his mind to them, and thus abstracts from them other pictures. The ability to think is the occupation with pictures that are beyond sense perception, and the application of the mind to them for analysis and synthesis. This is what is meant by the word af’idah “hearts” in the Qur’an. “He gave you hearing and vision and hearts” (Al Qur’an Surah 16: Ayat 78). Af’idah is the plural of fu’ad. It means here the ability to think.

In his view the ability to think has its degrees.  Concerning these degrees he states:

The ability to think has several degrees. The first degree is man’s intellectual understanding of the things that exist in the outside world in a natural or arbitrary order, so that he may try to arrange them with the help of his own power.  This kind of thinking mostly consists of perceptions. It is the discerning intellect, with the help of which man obtains the things that are useful for him and his livelihood, and repels the things that are harmful to him.

The second degree is the ability to think which provides man with the ideas and the behaviour needed in dealing with his fellow men and in leading them. It mostly conveys apperceptions, which are obtained one by one through experience, until they have become really useful. This is called the experimental intellect.

The third degree is the ability to think which provides the knowledge, or hypothetical knowledge, of an object beyond sense perception without any particular activity (going with it).  This is the speculative intellect. It consists of both perceptions and apperceptions. They are arranged according to a special order, following special conditions, and thus provide some other knowledge of the same kind, that is, either perceptive or apperceptive.  Then they are again combined with something else, and again provide some other knowledge.  The end of the process is to be provided with the perception of existence as it is, with its various genera, differences, reasons, and causes. By thinking about these things, (man) achieves perfection in his reality and becomes pure intellect and perceptive soul. This is the meaning of human reality.

Then he goes on to explain that the world of things that come into being as the result of action, materialize through thinking.  He says:

It should be known that the world of existent things comprises pure essences, such as the elements, the things resulting from their influence, and the three things that come into being from the elements, namely minerals, plants, and animals.  All these things are connected with divine power.

It also comprises actions proceeding from living beings that happen through their intentions, and are connected with the that God  has given them. Some of their actions are well arranged and orderly. Such are human actions.  Others are not well arranged and orderly.  They are the actions of living beings other than man.

This is because thinking perceives the order that exists among the things that come into being either by nature or through arbitrary arrangement. When it intends to create something, it must understand the reason or cause of that thing, or the conditions governing it, for the sake of the order that exists among things that come into being. (Reason, cause, conditions) are, in general, the principles of that particular thing, since it is secondary to them, and it is not possible to arrange for something that comes earlier to come later, or for something that comes  earlier to come late or for something that comes later to come earlier.  Such a principle must have another principle to which its own existence is posterior.  This (regression) may go on in an ascending order (from principle to principle), or it may come to an end.

Now, when man, in his thinking, has reached the last principle on two, three, or more levels, and starts the action that will bring the (planned) thing into existence he will start with the last principle that has been reached by his thinking. Thus, (that last principle) will be the beginning of action. He, then, will follow things up to the last element in the causal chain that has been the starting point of his thinking activity.

Then he illustrates this thinking procedure leading to purposive action by giving the example of a person building a shelter for himself.  He says:

For instance, if a man thinks of bringing into existence a roof to shelter him, he will progress in his mind (from the roof) to the wall supporting the roof, and then to the foundation upon which the wall stands. Here, his thinking will end, and he will then start to work on the foundation, then (go on to) the wall, then (to) the roof, with which his action will end. This is what is meant by the saying:

“The beginning of action is the end of thinking, and the beginning of thinking is the end of action.”

Thus, human action in the outside world materializes only through thinking about  the order of things, since things are based upon each other. After (he has finished thinking) he starts doing things. His thinking starts with the last thing that comes last in the causal chain and is done last. His action starts with the first  thing in the causal chain, which thinking reaches last. Once this order is taken into consideration, human actions proceed in a well-arranged manner.

Then he goes on to explain the actions of animals which are not ordered because they have no thinking capacity to perceive the order of things, perceiving only with the senses without the connecting link of thought. Hence they are subordinate to human actions (hence they are aubjugated by mankind). Ibn Khaldun says:

Now the things that come into being that are of consequence in the world of existent things are those that are orderly. Those that are not orderly are secondary to them.  The actions of animals, therefore, are subordinate to (orderly human actions). (Consequently, their services are forcibly utilized by man. Thus, human actions control the (whole) world of things that come into being and all it contains. Everything is subservient to man and works for him. This is what is meant by the “appointing of a representative” mentioned in the Qur’an:” I am appointing a representative on earth”. (Surah AlBaqarah: Ayat 30). (Hence, nations of orderly actions can dominate other nations not so orderly, societies with orderly actions can dominate those which are not so orderly and so on (El-Muhammady).

He then goes on to explain further the eminence of man because of the thinking faculty.  He states:

The ability to think is the quality of man by which human beings are distinguished from other living beings.  The degree to which a human being is able to establish an orderly causal chain determines the degree of humanity. Some people are able to establish a causal nexus for two or three levels. Some are not able to go beyond that. Others may reach five or six. Their humanity, consequently, is higher. For instance, some chess players are able to perceive (in advance) three or five moves the order of which is arbitrary. Others are unable to do that, because their mind is not good enough for it. This example is not quite to the point, because (the knowledge of) chess is a habit, whereas the knowledge of causal chain is something natural.  However, it is an example the student may use to gain an intellectual understanding of the basic facts mentioned here. (Rosenthal tr. II.406, 411 ff).

After this he goes on to explain how experimental intellect is developed in social and civilizational life, followed by the rise of religious and rational sciences in Islam.

This spirit of intellectual inquiry as a part of religious has led to the emergence of the mosque-universities, the madrasas, the nizamiyas, and so on, which became the forerunners of the universities of Europe. By reason of this spirit of inquiry there emerged men of learning in the arts and the sciences like Ibn Sina, al-Biruni, al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Umsar Khayyam, al-Idrisi, ar-Razi, and many others whose works had been studied by Europeans.

It is natural that the impetus to thinking given by the revelation of the Quran and the tradition of the Prophet led to the emergence of the intellectual culture of Islam, which further led to the rise of the Renaissance of Europe.

The influence of Islam on Western intellectual culture:

In connection with the subject of the relationship between Islam and the West -especially with reference to the emergence of intellectual culture of Europe initiated with the profound aid of Islam– the HRH The Prince of Wales has accurately portrayed the situation:

…We have underestimated the importance of 800 years of Islamic Society and Culture in Spain between the 8^th and the 15^th centuries. The contribution of Muslim Spain to the preservation of classical learning during the Dark Ages, and to the first flowering of the Renaissance, has long been recognized. But Islamic Spain was much more than a mere larder where Hellenic knowledge was kept for later consumption by the emerging modern world. Not only did Muslim Spain gather and preserve the intellectual content of ancient Greek and Roman civilization, and made a vital contribution of its own in so many fields of human endeavour – in science, astronomy, mathematics, algebra (itself an Arabic word), law, history, medicine, pharmacology, optics, agriculture, architecture, theology, music.

Averroes and Avenzoor, like their counterparts Avicenna and Rhazes in the East, contributed to the study and practice of medicine in ways from which Europe benefited for centuries afterwards.

Islam nurtured and preserved the quest of learning. In the words of (Prophet’s) tradition “the ink of the scholar is more sacred than the blood of the martyr”.  Cordoba in the 10^th century was by far the most civilized city of Europe.  We know of lending libraries in Spain at the time of King Alfred was making terrible blunders with the culinary arts in this country. It is said that the 400,000 volumes of its ruler’s library amounted to more books than all the rest of Europe put together. That was made possible because the Muslim World acquired from China the  skill of making paper more than four hundred years before the rest of non-Muslim Europe .many of the traits on which Europe prides itself came to it from Muslim Spain. Diplomacy, free trade, open borders, the techniques of academic research, of anthropology, etiquette, fashion, alternative medicine, hospitals, all came from this great city of cities. Medieval Islam was a religion of remarkable tolerance for its time, allowing Jews and Christians to practice their inherited beliefs, and setting an example which was not, unfortunately, copied for many centuries in the West. The surprise, ladies and gentlemen,  is the extent to which Islam has been a part of Europe for so long, first in Spain, then in the Balkans, and the extent to which it has contributed so much towards the civilization which we  all often think of, wrongly,  as entirely Western. Islam is part of our past and present, in all fields of human endeavour. It has helped to create modern Europe.  It is part of our own inheritance, not a thing apart. (http://www.twf.org/Library/Renaissance.html).

In connection with the contribution of Islam to the Renaissance – and hence to the modern world – it is stated:

It is well to recall that Islam not only caused Islamic civilization to develop but also enabled the European Renaissance to take root and grow. The time when Islam was most strongly established was also the time when art, culture and literature flourished, whether in Spain or, later under the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals, Christian Europe was enveloped in darkness until Islam came to the Iberian Peninsula. For centuries Islam fed Greek, Sanskrit, and Chinese ideas into Europe. Slowly and steadily Europe began to absorb those ideas. In England, France, Germany, and Italy society began to explore literature and art with a new perspective; thus the seeds of the Renaissance were sown …

(Akbar S. Ahmad, “Living Islam”, p. 15. In http://www.twf.org/Library/Renaissance.Html).

The influence of Islamic intellectual culture on Europe is very much emphasized by Dr Hans Koechler in his paper entitled “Muslim Christian Ties in Europe: Past, Present, and Future” (September, 1996 in Kuala Lumpur). He says eloquently and cogently:

It is a historical fact that the shaping of a genuine European intellectual life in the Middle Ages was the result of the flourishing Islamic civilization in Spain.  During five centuries – from the eighth to the thirteenth century exactly – the history of world civilization was that of Islam. In comparison to the Christian civilization of Europe at that time, Islamic civilization was much more refined and enlightened. Over a crucial period of roughly two hundred years Europe’s encounter with Islamic civilization enabled it to develop its skills in all scholarly and scientific fields, particularly those of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, chemistry and mathematics. It is one of the greatest achievements of Muslim scholars in the Middle Ages to have preserved the treasures of ancient Greek philosophy and science for posterity. Christian scholars only came to know about the concepts of Aristotelian metaphysics through the Arab philosophers in Spain and their translators and commentaries. The Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes), born in Cordoba in 1126, exercised the biggest influence through his commentary on Aristotle. The Arab school (Universities) in Cordoba, Seville, Granada, Valencia, Toledo attracted great number of Christian scholars.  Great Christian thinkers of that time, such as Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, William of Ockham, Gerbert of Aurillac, later to become Pope Sylvester II , to mention only a few, developed their intellectual skills in those centres of learning”. (http://i-p-o.org/ice.htm).

Concerning further intellectual influence of Islam on Europe, especially in studies and research relating to medicine, he writes:

The “Great Library of Europe” in Toledo (in Islamic times) -where in 1130 a school of translation was founded- attracted students and researchers from all over Europe. Arab-Islamic medical science had an enormous impact on the development of the medical discipline in Europe. The first professors of medicine at the newly established European universities in the 12^th century were all former students of Arab scholars. The basic work of the most famous medical scholar, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Qanun (Canon medicinae) was taught in all major European faculties of medicine over six centuries. As late as 1587 King Henry III of France established a chair for Arabic language at the College Royal in order to promote medical research in France….

Concerning developments in other fields he writes:

Similar influences on the development of scientific methods can be traced in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, architecture, music and industrial techniques. The Arab astronomer al-Battani (Albatenius, 858-929) authoritatively disproved the Ptolemaic dogma of heliocentrism long before Copernicus published his famous treatise De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in the 16^th century. The Roman period of European art was deeply indebted to Islamic architecture particularly in Spain. Without going  into further detail one can rightly state that the Islamic civilization – that flourished in the South of Europe until the late 12^th century and its universal achievements even surpassed the earlier contribution of the Roman Empire to the development of civilization – awakened Europe from its “dogmatic sleep” in the Middle Ages and thus prepared an early European Renaissance in the sense of an enlightened, rational, non-dogmatic world vision.

Then he goes on to explain the unfortunate prejudiced attitude of Europe towards Islam and Muslims which makes objective intellectual and civilizational dialogue difficult, in spite of what has happened throughout the centuries.

Before concluding this brief talk, as a student of Islam and Islamic thought, I humbly would like to submit the following for our collective consideration as Muslims and as citizens on Malaysia in this Malay World; and this has been mentioned many times on several occasions:

• One, the primacy of the Islamic Sunni world-view and epistemology which must be kept in mind and understood up to the relevant degree as an intellectual perimeter for structuring of thought
• Two, among Muslims, the primacy of the Sunni theological framework which should be upheld in the Malay World, for spiritual and theological stability and authenticity, keeping in mind all the relevant developments necessary for contemporary intellectual and theological guidance
• Three, in matters pertaining to the Islamic Sacred law-the Shari’ah – the Shafi’I Sunni school is upheld, together with the necessary additions of legal decisions made pertaining to contemporary issues
• Four, in matters pertaining to Islamic spirituality and ethics, the Ghazali corpus should be the source for guidance, together with the necessary additions made by reason of the demands due to changes in culture and thought.
• Finally, the “Muqaddimah” of Ibn Khaldun should be utilized in matters for cultural and civilizational empowerment, together with additions made whenever necessary because of developments in contemporary culture and thought

From all the above it is clear that intellectual culture must be fostered to the maximum degree at all costs – of course without losing sight of the integral nature of knowledge combining with high degree of spiritual awareness and moral excellence – beginning with the schools and then reaching its zenith in the university.  It is here, if we understand Ibn Khaldun correctly, that humanity reaches the peak of its intellectual and human perfection, for humanity is perfected through the perfection of the intellectual function. This is done not only for extrinsic reasons for survival and development in the conventional sense, but also for the intrinsic reason due to the demands of the nature of man and the prerequisite for his blessedness and meaningful existence. And this can succeed only – Allah willing – with synergistic cooperation of those concerned: the teachers, students, administrators, funders, the government, and in fact the whole nation.

Wallahu a’lam.

The Relevance Of The Khaldunian Discourse To The Modern Age

THE RELEVANCE OF THE KHALDUNIAN DISCOURSE TO THE MODERN AGE*

BY

MUHAMMAD ‘UTHMAN EL-MUHAMMADY

The present paper suggests, with caution, that the Khaldunian intellectual discourse is of utmost importance-among other discourses of this category of universality- in helping Muslims in maintaining their civilizational and spiritual-cum-intellectual identity and authenticity while grappling with some of the present issues in the intellectual, cultural and civilizational fields. This is relevant especially in matters pertaining to Islamic tawhidic world-view, epistemology, axiology, education, culture and socio-political exigencies. Hence in in-depth and serious study of this discourse is intellectually and absolutely necessary.

His Life:

Before going to his ideas it may be pertinent for us, at least to refresh our memory with the salient features of his life, educational background, and activities, in the age and the environment in which he lived. He is- Allah has mercy on him- Wali al-Din ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin al-Hasan bin Jabir bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Khaldun. According to his own account his ancestors originated from Hadramaut, Yemen. And through another line, his ancestor is traced, based on the record of Ibn Hazm, through his grandfather, who was the first to enter Andalusia, back to Wail bin Hajar, one of the oldest Yemeni tribes; he is undoubtedly of Arab origin. (1)

He was born in Tunis on the 27^th of May 1332 (Ramadan 1, 732), started his traditional education befitting his family situation and status, first at the hands of his won father, memorising the Qur’an, learning grammar, sacred law, tradition of the Prophet, rhetoric, philology, and poetry; he mentions his teachers in his autobiography. He continued with his education until the time of the great plague which swept over countries from Mauritania to Samarkand, causing him to lose his parents and his professors; then he had occasion to enter public life when ibn Tarafkin, the king of Tunis made him the seal bearer of Sultan Abu Ishaq, who was his captive. He was then a youth under twenty. (2) With this appointment he came to know the inner workings of court politics and the weaknesses of governments. Then he had the opportunity to leave Tunis.

When Tunis was attacked by Abu Zaid the Emir of Constantine in 1352 A.D. (713 A.H.), the city was defeated, and ibn Khaldun escaped to Aba where he lived with the al-Muwahhidin; then he went to live in Biskra. Then in Morocco Sultan Abu Enan who had recently settled on the throne of his father was on his way to conquer Algeria, hence ibn Khaldun went to Tlemcen to meet him, and he noted that was so honoured by ruler; later he was appointed by the Sultan as a member of his Council of the ‘Ulama, and later he was made one of his secretaries and seal bearers. He could resume his studies during his stay at Fez with some of the principal scholars who came to the city from Andalusia and other cities of North Africa. At that time he was twenty-two years old, and his intelligence, force of character, great ambition, determination and sense of honour of belong to a prominent family spurred him to seek success in life; hence he was involved in active political life for about thirty years. He was imprisoned for his intrigues, and then he was released.

The political situation was tense and ibn Khaldun was involved in intrigues, and later he was appointed as Chief Justice and he proved great ability in his duties; unfortunately he lost favour with the Sultan because of rivalry with high officials of state. Ibn Khaldun was involved in a number of intrigues, and finally he requested that he would go to Andalusia.

In Andalusia ibn Khaldun established cordial relationship with Sultan Muhammad of Granada; among Sultan Muhammad’s party was Ibn al-Khatib who developed close friendship with ibn Khaldun, and in his attempt to restore his throne in Granada through an agreement with the Christian King Pedro the Cruel, when the latter delayed the fulfillment of the agreement Sultan Muhammad appealed to ibn Khaldun for assistance from Wazir Omar, and ibn Khaldun assisted him; ibn Khaldun was even entrusted to care for Sultan Muhammad’s family in Fez. The wazir then granted Sultan Muhammad Ronda and the surrounding country, and Sultan Muhammad continued to make efforts to recapture his throne in 1361 A.D. (763 A.H.) and then recalled his wazir ibn al-Khatib.

The mission of ibn Khaldun to Pedro the Cruel was successful, and Pedro offered ibn Khaldun a position for his service, and the return of his family’s former estate at Castile, but the latter refused the offer. (3). Then ibn Khaldun asked the permission of Sultan Muhammad and went to his friend Abu Abdullah when he recaptured his at Bougie. Thus ibn Khaldun became the Hajib of Sultan of Bougie, involving the “management of all the affairs of the state and the exclusive organization of the relations between the Sultan and hius subjects”(4). When the city was defeated by Abul ‘Abbas in 767, ibn Khaldun submitted the city to him; then he went to live in Biskra. Finally he retired to a far outpost south of Constantine, Fort Salama. Here, at the ripe age of forty-five with peaceful life, he started to write his famous masterpiece al-Muqaddimah. Then when Sultan Abul ‘Abbas went to capture Tunis, he took the opportunity to return to his native city looking for reference works. Then when political intrigues were not in his favour, he left North Africa (1382 A.D./784 A.H.) never to return. (5)

After a difficult sea voyage He arrived in Alexandria in October 1382 A.D. (Shaaban 784 A.H.) when he was fifty years old; in Cairo, then the center of Muslim learning of the east and the West, he was welcomed by students and scholars; his fame had already preceded his arrival in the city; he lectured at Al-Azhar and other established institutions. In this period he had the opportunity to meet Sultan Zahir Barquq who appointed him to a teaching post, as a professor, at the Kamhiah school.(6)He was also appointed as a Maliki judge and tried to fight against corruption and favouritism, and then because of conspiracies against him he was relieved from his post, and this coincided with disaster in which his family and his wealth all perished in the storm before reaching the port. Then after his pilgrimage, he was appointed to the teaching post, lecturing on hadith, especially on the Muwatta’ of Imam Malik. During this time ibn Khaldun spent his time lecturing, studying and finishing his book on universal history. Then fourteen years after leaving the post of Maliki judge he was again appointed to the post because of the death of the judge, then again he was relieved of his position because of intrigues.

When ibn Khaldun was in Damascus, while following the company of the Sultan of Egypt, and when the Sultan had to return to Egypt, ibn Khaldun had to meet Tamerlane; Tamerlane was so impressed by him that he asked him to join his court, but ibn Khaldun left him on good terms, after getting favourable terms for the people of Damascus.

According to Walter Fischel there were six topics discussed between ibn Khaldun and the conqueror:

1.                  The Maghrib and ibn Khaldun’s land of origin;

2.                  Heroes in history;

3.                  Predictions about future events;

4.                  The Abbaside Caliphate;

5.                  Amnesty and security ‘for ibn Khaldun and his companions’

6.                  Ibn Khaldun’s intention of staying with Tamerlane. (7)

When Ibn Khaldun returned to Egypt he was restored to his post as the Maliki judge, and because of the stormy situation he was dismissed and reinstalled three times in five years. He died on Wednesday, 17^th March 1406 A.D.(25^th Ramadan 808 A.H.), and was buried in the sufi cemetery outside bab an-Nasr while he was at the age of seventy-four years.(8)

His Works:

Concerning his works, it is suggested that they can be categorized into the historical and the religious; into the historical category of course is to be included the Kitab al-‘Ibar or universal History which has survived until the present day. Another one is lost, that is history work written specifically for Tamerlane, as mentioned in his autobiography. Then his religious works are Lubab al-Mahsul (Summary of the Result), a commentary on usul al-fiqh poem, and a few which, among others is Shifa’ al-Sa’il (Healing of the Inquirer). (9)

His masterpiece, the Muqaddimah which is the introduction to his universal history can be divided can be divided into six parts; and this division is clear from the division of the work itself. In the translation of F. Rosenthal, in volume one the chapters covered are: introduction, dealing with excellence of historiography, appreciation of various approaches to history, different errors made by previous historians, something about why these errors do occur.

Book One of the Kitab al-’Ibar about the nature of civilization, Bedouin and settled life, the achievements of superiority, gainful occupational, ways of making a living, the sciences, crafts, and all the other things that affect civilization, the causes and reasons thereof.  Then preliminary remarks.

The scope of the discussion of the masterpiece of ibn Khaldun-with the chapter headings dealing with the various subjects – is put as an appendix at the end of this essay.

Relevance of Khaldunian Discourse in the Views of Some Scholars:

James Kalb, is of the view that the seminal work, al-Muqaddimah, was composed by Ibn Khaldun

“…as a thinker who grappled with circumstances similar in important ways to the social and political situation now evolving in the West. He was superbly qualified for his task, with a vigorous and unconventional mind and a knowledge of politics and history that came from descent from an ancient family with distinguished political and scholarly traditions, profound study, and a varied life of public service and a political adventure as a courtier, jurist, and statesman in Islamic centers from Spain to Damascus. He was admired by scholars and by the most ruthlessly practical of men; Pedro the Cruel and Tamerlane wished to make uses of him, while Granada’s greatest writer, ibn al-Khatib, wrote his life and honoured his learning and literary skill”. (10).

The same writer gives an evaluation of ibn Khaldun’s intellectual discourse in the following words:

His work reflects a mind attracted to practical politics, to scholarship, and to mysticism. After failing in efforts to promote public good, he turned to scholarship in an attempt to understand the past and explain the necessity that seemed to govern events. As an intense participation in the affairs of a great civilization irreversibly in decline, he was acutely aware of what was and what should be, and neither confused the two, or attempted to encompass one in the other. (11)

Further, seeing the relevance of Khaldunian intellectual discourse in illuminating the cultural and social changes taking place, he says:

To-day’s mixing of peoples, cultures and ideologies, whether resulting from world trade and immigration or improved communication and social fission, is moving our world closer in important ways to the one Ibn Khaldun knew than the more cohesive one with which we have long been familiar. Such changes will affect our politics profoundly in ways his writings can illuminate for us (12).

Apart from this he adds:

The gifts of the past may not be ours forever. Common loyalties make a people, and the common culture and history that support a people’s identity are needed to make loyalties endure. Success in transplanting a British society to America and absorbing European immigrants into it is no sign that the American civic order will survive abandonment of a common or at least dominant identity; a social setting like the one ibn Khaldun knew will be the more likely consequence. Immigration and the end of national boundaries could bring about similar results within the European Union by replacing ordered diversity with bureaucratically – administered chaos. While such things are not inevitable, powerful tendencies favour them, and a clearer understanding of what the resulting society would be like and how it could come about may be useful. Ibn Khaldun’s thought is an aid to such understanding. (13)

Another recent estimation of Khaldunian intellectual discourse is from an American writer, Jude Wanniski from Supply -Side University; he states in his web-site:

When I learned Arnold Toynbee believed that ibn Khaldun had produced the greatest work on social science to come from the mind of man, I had to assume his was at least in the top five. Toynbee is of course is one of this century’s giants in historiography. After reading through a small piece of Khaldun’s work, I have to admit I awed by the man’s genius. How could I have spent so much of my life in politics without being led to him before? Ronald Reagan like to quote Khaldun on the issue of taxation-that they are low at the beginning of empires and high at their end … Ibn Khaldun is not an Arab neo-Platonist as his world view subsumes theirs and is an original one not previously expressed in the world. This singular breakthrough not only is awesome, but practically evidence of divine inspiration … What we will consider … are selected fragments from the sixth book (of the Muqaddimah-uem) of his philosophy of history. My aim simply is to allow you to be impressed with him and have you appreciate the foundation he presents, on which you can build your won designs of the way the world works. The following passages are presented with what at first seems almost childlike simplicity, until you realize he is building this foundation brick by brick, with seamless logic (followed by the passages dealing on the origins of society) (14)

At the of the several pages containing quotations from the Muqaddimah in the F. Rosenthal translation concerning such topics as “Origins of Society” (Book I Chapter I p.181),  “Origins of State”, “State and Society”, Vol. II p. 264), “Political Sanctions” (vol. I, p. 345), “Social Solidarity is based on Kinship” (vol. I. p. 235, vol. I. p. 236), “Proximity and a Common Life as the Basis of Solidarity” (vol. I. p. 332), “Solidarity in Tribes” (vol. I. p. 223), “Transition From Tribal To Village and City Life and Consequent Weakening of Solidarity” (vol. I. p. 237), “Solidarity in Cities”, (vol. II. p. 267), “Solidarity is the Basis of Sovereignty” (vol. I. p. 252), “Solidarity is the basis of Kingship” (vol. I. p. 278), “Once State is Established Solidarity Becomes Superfluous” (vol. I. p. 279) he states clearly:

In 700 years, nothing has really changed in how societies are continuously being shaped, about the nature of solidarity and sovereignty.

Then straightaway he applies this to the US situation vis-à-vis the rest of the world; he states:

Now that the United States is solely at the top of the global power pyramid, we can almost imagine the dynamics that will flow from this fact into the next century. The US is the global sovereign power .All other heads of state are as chieftains (Ar. “sheikhs” -uem) of their national tribes. It is an intricate maze to organize, though, with many hundreds of languages and myriad religions, sects, ethnicities, national identities. It will take great skill to organize these over the next several centuries. (15)

The same writer (“unofficial adviser to the Bush administration” as mentioned in his web-site) goes on citing passages from the Muqaddimah like passages on “Opposition of Tribes and bands” (vol. I, p.295), “Nature of Kingship”, (vol. I, p.337), “Concentration of Authority” (vol. I. p.299), “Need of the King for A Bureaucracy” (vol.II.p.1), “Changes in the Composition of the Bureaucracy” (vol.vol.II.p.40), “Natural Ages of the State” (vol.I.p.306), “Transition From Nomadic To Sedentary Forms” (vol.I.p.309), “Growth of Luxury” (vol.I.p.300), “Luxury and Power” (vol.I.313), “Growth of Docility” (vol.I.p.301).

In relation to these passages cited, he comments as follows:

(After mentioning the past lectures on sovereignty, kinghip) Think now of the United States as the Global Sovereign, pondering how to manage 180 or more separate nations. Think each (country in the world now-uem) as a tribe or band, some of whom will always be trying to outwit the sovereign, all of whom will resist being stripped off some measure of independence. It becomes clear we have barely begun to think through the architecture of a new world order built around our kingship. Remember, the following was written six centuries ago. (16)

In relation to the passage about “The Need of the King for Bureaucracy” since the King cannot act alone but has to act and govern through a bureaucracy he says:

In this passage think of the United States needing a bureaucracy (to dominate the world-uem) which obviously suggests the United Nations-JW (17)

And in relation to the Khaldunian quotation (vol.II.p.1):

He whom God has chosen as a ruler must protect his community from external aggression, preserve order, and enforce the laws, in order to prevent the encroachment by any one on the rights of others. He must protect property by making the highways secure .He must seek to promote the interest of his subjects and hence, in order to facilitate transactions and make it easier for his subjects to earn their livelihood, inspect foodstuffs, weights, and measures, to prevent adulteration or fraud. He must, too, test the coinage which they use, in order to prevent counterfeiting…

He adds the remarks:

It is the United States which must set the unit of account…JW (18)

Then in relation to the following directive in Khaldunian discourse necessitating bureaucratic and military actions of the sovereign:

Know then, that the ruler requires both a civilian and a military establishment to aid him in carrying on with the affairs of the state. At the beginning of the dynasty, when the rulers are consolidating their power, the need for military  power is greater than that for a civilian bureaucracy ; for the civilians are mere servants, carrying out the orders of the king, whereas the military are his partners and fellow workers .The same is also true of the period of decline of a dynasty , when old age has weakened social solidarity  and caused the population to decrease , as we said before; in such a case too, the need for soldiers , for the purposes of defence, makes itself as urgently  felt as it had been during the period of consolidation of the state. In both those stages, then, the sword plays a more important part than the pen, and the military enjoy more prestige and wealth, and are granted richer fiefs than the civilians..

He notes revealingly:

In the period ahead, perhaps for a decade or two, while the world is getting used to U.S. sovereignty. We must bear the expense of maintaining the military, until it is clear the “tribes” will accept our sovereignty. JW (19)

We can see this at present (2003) happening in the world in the global scene.

In relation to the validity and relevance of Ibn Khaldun’s discourse in theorizing about culture, John W. Bennet states:

“(In citing the impressive development of ‘anthropological’ ideas outside the publicized European channels he states after mentioning ibn Battutah and al-Muguaddisi (al-Maqdisi)) …Ibn Khaldun is probably the best known, due to one complete translation of his major work (Rosenthal 1958) and an excellent contemporary analytical presentation of his theories (Mahdi 1957). Khaldun is the only scholar with a modern view to antedate the 19^th century;-there are some intimidations in Vico for the early 18^th century (Bergin & Fisch 1960, pp. xxiii, iiii; 47), but they do not approach the clarity and modernity of Khaldun…(20)

And in appreciating the views of ibn Khaldun on theorizing about culture and civilization, and their relevance in discourse he states:

Khaldun had a word for culture; he recognized and theorized about cultural differences; he distinguished culture from society and primitive culture from civilization; and had a clear theory of the roots of culture in human biological needs and engagement with the environment…

Of equal relevance are the circumstances out of which Khaldun’s theory emerged. He lived most of his life as a kind of 14^th century Harry Hopkins – an intellectual attached to rulers of various sections of the Western Muslim Empire. He had observed the disparity between Islamic orthodoxy and the social realities of the empire, and became deeply critical of the failure of Islamic history to portray this disparity, and to present reasons for the cultural differences existing between the many peoples of the empire. He developed a theory of what he called, in direct translation, ‘the science of culture’ as the explanatory element in historical scholarship…This objective led him, as already noted, to an exposition of a theory of culture with both historical and functional orientations. (21)

Hamou Amrouche in “Algeria’s Islamic Revolution People Versus Democracy?” (22) mentions the relevance and accuracy of the observations of Ibn Khaldun – mentioning the idea adopted from him by Albert Hourani – concerning the stability of regime depending upon the combination of three factors. He states:

To understand fully “the apparent paradox of stable and enduring regimes in deeply disturbed societies” Albert Hourani adapted an idea from ibn Khaldun and suggested that the stability of a regime depended upon a combination of three factors. It was stable when cohesive ruling group was able to link its interests with those of powerful elements in society, and when that alliance of interests was expressed in a political idea which made the power of the rulers legitimate in the eyes of society or at least a significant part of it.

Then he goes on to show how it materialized during the Boumedienne regime. He says:

These three major ingredients undoubtedly sustained Boumedienne’s regime, since a monolithic army allied itself with the peasants and the workers —the forces vives of the nation— and expressed this alliance with Arabo-Islamism, the ‘national constants’, and socialist ideology…

Then in relation to one proposed Graduate Seminar in 2003, Prof Ronald Judy explains the relevance of Khaldunian discourse in the current political climate in the Muslim World related to the emergence of two types of movements. He says about the Seminar (23):

Our focus will be on how specific moments in the institution of knowledge afford a glance at the dialectic between the state and what might be designated as civil society. This dialectic was most thoroughly theorized by Ibn Khaldun in the fourteenth century.. Its importance for us to-day, however, stems from the fact that the Khaldunian model of agency has come to be a touchstone for two contemporary movements of Islamic resistance to transnational capitalism .On the one hand, Khaldun’s principle on entropy has been utilized by such “integrationist” as Sayyid Qutb, at-Turabi, al-Madani, and a Ghanoushi to explain the failure of Pan-Arab secularism and legitimate their projects of social reforms based on sharia (discourse of jurisprudence). On the other hand, Khaldun’s theory of religion as ideology has enabled thinkers like Muhammad al-Jabarti, Fatima Mernissi, and Ibrahim Shukry to engage in a legitimate reformulation of Islam that retains the project of social justice, in the broadest sense, without relying on a theory of law based on a homogeneous collective identity. Both these applications of Khaldun presuppose a concept of civil society as a space of resistance between domination and subjugation, and that the possibility of successful resistance lies in this difference’s being institutionalized as a revolutionary mode of knowledge production …

In the essay entitled “The Future of the Social Sciences”, Renate Holub writes about Ibn Khaldun’s discourse in history and the science of society and culture, and its relevance, while discussing the role of Vico and others:

No doubt Vico was not the first thinker to reflect on social facts that pattern order and disorder. For one, ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), the fourteenth century historian, statesman, and jurist, in the tradition of the Islamic enlightenment from the Tunisian shore of the Mediterranean, studied the history of dynastic regimes since the inception of Islam.The regions he covered ranged from the Oxus to the Nile, and from the Tigris to the Guadalquivir. He detected patterns of behaviour which either added to social cohesion, or participated in its disintegration .In his Muqaddimah (1377), he concluded trhat ruling groups sustain their power by a sense of solidarity, or ‘asabiyyah, which unites both rulers and ruled. Asabiyyah, both a structure of consciousness and a structure of feeling, which via education and socialization assumes the power of a habitus, or a spontaneous common sense, obtains as long as the ruling groups refrain from attempting to gain exclusive control over all sources of power and wealth. However, as soon as the ruling groups gain such exclusive control, conflict breaks out. The old regime will soon be displaced by a new dynastic regime. Order, followed by disorder, produces new orders in ibn Khaldun’s cyclical understanding of the political histories of regions under Muslim majority control. (24)

Then he mentions Nicolo Machavelli (1469-1527) who appeared about a century after ibn Khaldun who “studied the role of social facts in patterns of order and disorder…”(25).

In relation to the situation in Turkey and the question of facing Western civilization among the intellectuals, the use of certain aspects of the Khaldunian discourse has its relevance in providing certain elements of the intellectual constructs for such an engagement. The situation is portrayed in the following terms:

“(Concerning the intellectual movement in Turkey which sees Islam not only as a religion but also as a civilizational apparatus to be discovered and applied)…Necip Fazil Kisakurck, founder of the Great Oriental Movement and the monthly journal of the same name, is the forerunner of this group. Since 1943, and in more than 80 books, notably Bab-I Ali and the Ideological Web, he has argued that both the scholastic structure of the madrasa education which produced the type of ulama which could not meet the challenge of westernization during the late Ottoman period, and modern secularistic educational establishments set up after the tanzimat reforms and the Young Turk revolution are incapable of meeting the need of a contemporary dynamic Turkey. Only when Islam is seen as a civilization and its parameters rejuvenated in a contemporary form in their totality can Turkey really progress. Cemil Meric taking cue from Kisakurck, analysed the notion of civilization with profound sophistication and dissected the western civilization with the ability of a master surgeon. In From Civilization to Umran he uses ibn Khaldun’s notion of umran to argue for the reconstruction of the physical and intellectual apparatus of Islamic civilization…. (26)

In Turkey also, there is Dr Fahri Kayadibi who appreciates the discourse of education in its various aspects. In the short but important essay he argues that in matters of education the views of Ibn Khaldun are relevant for our age. (27)

He agrees with a number of points in the Muqaddimah about education, namely: the importance of imparting information to students according to their level of comprehension; he says this is done by teaching them the main principles of the information and the sciences involved in a brief manner, taking into consideration the capacity of the students. As time goes on more elaborations are made gradually, so that the students will mature in the subjects taught. According to him the revision should be done three times over. To ibn Khaldun this is the correct method.

Then he stresses the importance of not forcing the students to memorise their lessons; otherwise they will be lazy. Other points mentioned are: that the subjects should not be taught in broken sequence because the integrated nature of the subject will not be understood, and the mastery of the subject will take a longer time than otherwise the case.

Other points touched are: two subjects should not be taught at the same time, because this will lead to confusion; the necessity of not being too strict with students; the usefulness of traveling to meet authoritative scholars for furthering one’s education; the importance of practical education as opposed to mere theorization;  the importance of cultivating high degree of skill in education; ibn Khaldun uses the term ‘malakah’ for this high degree of skill in education, knowledge and crafts.

In his conclusion he states:

Ibn Khaldun has emphasized the importance of science, education and teaching. He foresees science and education as an inseparable part of prosperity. According to him, the real difference between mankind and other beings is the power of thought. Science and art are born from open–minded thought and the intricate learning of the principles of all issues. Ideas emerge from those who have the curiosity and the desire to investigate what is unknown. From this situation, the issues of education and teaching arise.

He advises teachers to teach in a comprehensive manner and to gradually teach subjects in stages, moving from easier to the more difficult. Memorisation should be avoided (except in the relevant cases which are unavoidable – uem). He emphasizes that teaching methods should be simple and not complicated. He states that the teaching of subjects should not be in broken sequences or else the subject  .He states that the teaching of subjects should not be in broken sequence or else the subject will become scattered and forgotten. Also, aggressive behaviour towards children will turn them off from lessons, create laziness, making them unwilling learners as well as negatively affecting their behaviour.

Education should consist of theory and practice. Education should be revised and repeated until a good level is attained. He also declares that learning and teaching sciences require skill and that the teachers of these sciences should be knowledgeable in their fields. These clearly defined issues of ibn Khaldun are still relevant for educational issues of contemporary times. (28).

Addessalam Cheddadi in his important essay “Ibn Khaldun”, originally published in Prospects: the Quarterly Review of Comparative Education, (Paris UNESCO, International Bureau of Education, vol. XXIV, no1/2.1994, p. 7-19 discusses a number of important issues related to education, based on the Muqaddimah. The points mentioned are: the life-long nature of Islamic education; the all-important issue of the reproduction of values in the individual; the concept of the ‘asabiyyah, and its role in social cohesion, and how it relates to education; and then the necessity of man to learn from tradition, otherwise it will take too long a time to learn on one’s own developing the ‘empirical intelligence’ from experience; the inculcation of values through education and socialization; the importance of reputation in doing things so that ‘coloration of the soul’ will take place, engendering ‘habitus’ (‘malakah’) in knowledge, values, attitudes, and acts, including skills in crafts and learning, intellectual and linguistic skills, or even ‘malakah’ in spirituality and faith.

He dwells also on the development of the various ‘intellects’ in the person, the ‘empirical intellect’ developed by experience and experimenting,, the ‘theoretical intellect’ developed by theorization, the ‘discerning intellect’ for discerning the differences in things. (29) In this essay author leaves out the discussion on the importance of ‘added intellect’ (‘al-‘aqlul mazid’) which marks the superiority of a civilization in terms of intellectual worth.

Then in relation to economic life and the relevance of Khaldunian discourse in the issue of taxation, among others, there is a discussion on it in “Rise and Fall: ibn Khaldun and the Ethics of Taxation”, Chapter 15 in: the topic of “Advancing Economic Thought” (See http://www.ryerson.ca/~lovewell/khaldun.html).

Reflecting on his later years in Cairo, then the wealthiest city, the writer states:

In his later years ibn Khaldun returned to public life with a move to Cairo. Here, in what was then the Arab world’s largest and wealthiest city, he performed the occasional services for the Egyptian sultan, while also working as a professor and a judge. He died just as a new political power – Ottoman Turkey – was establishing its dominance throughoutt the Arab world in ways that his own historical theory had predicted. (30)

Concerning the sharp observation of human economic life and the resulting “division of labour” and “specialization”, he quotes with approval the statement of ibn Khaldun, which, to him has ‘a surprisingly modern flavour’. This:

…a single individual is incapable of satisfying his needs by himself, but must cooperate with other members of society. The product of such cooperative labour will exceed by far the needs of the group. Thus, in the production of wheat, for example, we do not see each individual providing for his own needs; rather we see six or ten persons cooperating: a blacksmith, a carpenter to repair tools; an ox-tender, a man to plough the soil, and another to reap the grain; and so forth for the different kinds of agricultural work, each man specializing in one operation…. Thus the inhabitants of a more populous city are more prosperous than their counterparts in a less populous one. (Cited from Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History, (London:John Murray, 1950) p.92-93.)(31).

Then while mentioning the fact that other writers had already touched on the issue of specialization of labour, like the Greek writer Xenophon, yet he states that “…no one before ibn Khaldun had appreciated the central importance of labour specialization in determining living standards. This realization allowed him to make yet another striking insight. A dynasty’s wealth, he noted, cannot be identified solely with money, since gold and silver ‘are only minerals and products having exchange value’. It would take several centuries before Ibn Khaldun’s realization would be fully incorporated in conventional economic thought.”(32)

In relation to taxation he quotes the views of ibn Khaldun with approval. He quotes:

In the early stages of the state, taxes are light in their incidence, but fetch in a large revenue … As time passes and kings succeed each other, they lose their tribal habits in favour of more civilized ones. Their needs and exigencies grow…owing to the luxury in which they have been brought up. Hence they impose fresh taxes on their subjects…[and] sharply raise the rate of old taxes to increase their yield…But the effect on business of this rise in taxation make themselves felt. For business men are soon discouraged by the comparison of their profits with the burden of their taxes…Consequently production falls off, and with it the yield of taxation…(33)

After discussing the mechanism of taxation and describing what he calls as “The Laffer Curve” using the Khaldunian theory, and assessing it, he gives his view about the relevance of the Khaldunian theory. He states:

Ibn Khaldun’s view of taxation offers a useful example of how an economic concept can be reapplied in an entirely different setting. As insightful as this view undoubtedly was for the times he lived in, it might not seem to be applicable to the modern age of democratic governments. After all no elected government would ever raise tax rates beyond the point where tax revenues would fall. Or would they? In fact, this question was part of a recent controversy in economics, which had important practical ramifications. During the 1970s, a group of economists developed a theory known as supply-side economics, which concentrates on the ways in which government actions can affect incentives for private citizens to work, save, and invest…. (34)

In giving his final view defending the Khaldunian theory on taxation, the writer states:

…But the modern version of Ibn Khaldun’s theory is far from fully discredited. All economists recognize its potential validity; with empirical studies suggesting that tax revenues and tax rates begin to move inversely in the range of a 70 percent tax rate. Also, recent debates over tax rates have brought a greater awareness of how public policy can affect private economic incentives. In a world where national borders are becoming less important, governments must keep tax rates relatively low or face loss of investment, jobs, and tax revenues to other countries. Ibn Khaldun’s original insight – made over 600 years ago – therefore continues to act as an important constraint on governments, in a world far different from his own. (35)

Further Aspects of the Relevance of The Khaldunian Discourse:

Without going into the intricate philosophical implications of modernity or post-modernity, the present paper would like to argue for the relevance of the Khaldunian intellectual discourse, in relation to the Muslim world in general and the Malay World in particular, in a brief manner, on a number of accounts:

Firstly, this intellectual discourse is of the utmost importance in relation to the act of maintaining our identity as Muslim civilization, with our world-view, epistemology, and axiology, in relation to education, politico-social order, and civilizational and ummatic identity, all based on the tawhidic paradigm.

Secondly, in building our strength in the spiritual, intellectual, technological and scientific domains so that we are not only on the receiving side, but we are also the creators of all these in our own way in the global scene.

Thirdly, in facing the process of globalization, and maintaining our identity, at the same time we can present the tawhidic image of compassion, the really ‘insani’ image of civilization and culture, with the strong culture in its aspects as a function of ummatic compassion, not divorced from it.

Fourthly, this Khaldunian discourse is of utmost importance in helping us to regain again the solidarity based on the correct understanding of the ‘asabiyyah principle within the ummatic ambiance and its function in the ummatic brotherhood-not a substitute for it- so that we can overcome and solve this ‘asabiyyah crisis as mentioned by Prof. Akbar Ahmed (36). Inadequate understanding of this principle and confusing it with secular nationalism, with the attending consequences in social and political action and conflicts, has brought and is bringing catastrophe in the Muslim Community. The late Said Nursi of Turkey-May Allah shower His mercy on him- has called it “positive nationalism”. (37):

Positive nationalism arises from an inner need of social life and is the cause of mutual assistance and solidarity; it ensures a beneficial strength; it is a means for further strengthening Islamic brotherhood.

This idea of positive nationalism must serve Islam, it must be its citadel and armour; it must not take the place of it. For there is a hundredfold brotherhood within the brotherhood of Islam which persists in the Intermediate Realm and World of Eternity. (38)

In all these-with Allah’s grace- the Khaldunian intellectual discourse can help us abundantly provided we are prepared to let the intellectual flow of the discourse to have an impact on us- giving us “al-tadhakkur” as the Qur’an teaches it.

In the Malay World, apart from the above, the seminal idea and principle of ‘asabiyyah is of paramount importance in dispelling popular rejection of ‘asabiyyah based on inadequate understanding, hence affecting national, even regional unity and strength. In the long run, this understanding is for the relative homogenization of the region, much needed for the intellectual and cultural stability of the area for ummatic development and progress in future. (39)

Now to the evidences of the above positions from the discourse in the Muqaddimah.

First the relevance of the discourse in relation to our world view, epistemology, axiology, education, intellectual development, politico-social order and ummatic identity in the discourse, which are not out of date in the fundamentals.

In relation to the tawhidic word-view and thinking about the causes to the ultimate, of which the human mind is incapable, harming itself, he states:

If this is clear, it is possible that the ascending sequence of causes reaches the point where it transcends the realm of human perception and existence and thus ceases to be perceived. The intellect would here become lost, confused, and cut off in the wilderness of conjectures. Thus, (recognition of the) oneness of God is identical with inability to perceive the causes and ways in which they exercise their influence, and with reliance in this respect upon the Creator of the causes who comprises them. There is no maker but Him. All (causes) lead up to Him and go back to His Power. We know about Him only in as much as we have issued from Him. This is the meaning of the statement on the authority of a certain truthful person (al-siddiq) “The inability to perceive is perception”.

Then talking about tawhidic world-view relating to the “state” of soul, he states in the continuing passage:

Such (declaration of the) oneness of God does not merely refer to faith, which is affirmation based upon judgment. It belongs to the talk of the soul. Its perfection lies in its acquisition in a form that becomes an attribute of the soul. In the same way, the object of (all human) actions and divine worship (‘al-ibadat’) is acquisition of the habit of obedience (‘malakah al-ta’ah’) (note the word: ‘malakah’-uem) and submissiveness and the freeing of the heart from all occupations save the Worshipped Master, until the novice on the path of God becomes a holy person (‘rabbani’) (40)

Then he talks about the difference between “state” of the soul and knowledge; he says:

The difference between ‘state’ and knowledge in question of dogma  (‘al-‘aqa’id’) is the same as that between talking (about attributes) and having them. This may be explained as follows: many people know that mercy to the orphans and the poor brings (a human being) close to God and is recommendable. They say so and acknowledge the fact. They quote the sources for it from the religious law. But if they were to see an orphan or a poor person of the destitute classes they would run away from him and disdain to touch him, let alone show mercy to him, or any of the higher ‘stations’ of sympathy, affection, and charity. Their mercy for the orphan was the result of having reached the station of knowledge. It was not the result of the station of ‘state’ nor of an attribute of theirs. Now, there are people who, in addition to the station of knowledge, and the realization of the fact that mercy to the poor brings (a human being) close to God, having attained another, higher ‘station’, they have attained the attribute and habit of mercy (‘ittisaf bir-rahmah wa malakatiha) (note the wording “malakah of rahmah” – uem). When they see an orphan or a poor person, they approach him and show him (mercy)…(41)

Then concerning divine worship and the question of getting the noble qualities, he states:

It should be known that in the opinion of the Law Giver (Prophet Muhammad s.a.w.) perfection with regards to any of the obligations he has imposed (upon Muslims) requires this (distinction)  (between knowing something as knowledge only and the higher station of possessing the quality involved – uem). Perfection in matters of belief depends on the other knowledge, that which results from the possession of (the se matters) as an attribute. Perfection in matters of divine worship depends on acquisition of (these matters) as an attribute, on real (knowledge) of them.

Divine worship and its continuous practice leads to this noble result. Muhammad says concerning the principal act of divine worship “My consolation lies in prayer…Prayer for Muhammad was an attribute and  ‘state’ in which he found his ultimate pleasure and consolation. How different is the prayer of the people! …

It is clear from all the statements we have made that the object of all (religious) obligations is the acquisition of a habit (‘malakah’) firmly rooted in the soul, from which a necessary knowledge results for the soul. It is the (recognition of the) oneness of God, which is the (principal) article of faith and the thing through which happiness is attained. There is no difference whether the obligations of the heart or those of the body are concerned in this respect. (42)

Then he elucidates the other articles of belief; he says:

It should be known that the Lawgiver (Muhammad s.a.w.) described to us this first degree of faith which is affirmation. He specified particular matters he charged us to affirm with our hearts and to believe in our souls, while at the same time acknowledging them with our tongues. They are the established articles of the Muslim faith. When Muhamnmad was asked about faith he said: “(Faith is) the belief in God, His angels, His scriptures, His messengers, the Last day, and the belief in predestination, be it good or bad”. (43)

Such are the articles of faith in ilm al-kalam, and he endorses this.

Thus, in this way he relates the tawhidic worldview with its impact on human belief, divine worship, character, soul, and actions, as well as values. This discourse is very logical, persuasive and convincing. It is relevant now just as it was relevant before. And from his discourse we know that he defends mainstream tawhidic Islamic world-view with all that it implies, and not the divergent views of the innovators which had appeared in Islamic history. This is a position which is the conviction of the majority of the Muslims throughout history until to-day, and this is the world-view which will be the intellectual defence against the intellectual deformity of modernity and post-modernity, apart from the intellectual innovations within the Community itself.

Concerning matters relating to the concept of knowledge and matters of like nature, including the development of knowledge in human civilization, we can briefly say that he endorses knowledge which are related to religion and that which is of intellectual nature. He begins the 6^th Chapter of the Muqaddimah with the discussion on human capability to think. Concerning man’s ability to think and its relationship to perception, he states (44):

It should be known that God distinguished man from all the other animals by an ability to think which He made the beginning of human perfection and the end of man’s noble superiority over existing things.

This comes about as follows: Perception, – that is consciousness, on the part of the person who perceives, in his essence of things that are outside his essence-is something peculiar to living beings to the exclusion of other being and existent things. Living beings may obtain consciousness of things that are outside their essence through the external senses God has given them that is, the sense of hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch. Man has this advantage over the other beings that he may perceive things outside his essence through his ability to think, which is something beyond his senses. It is the result of (special) powers placed in the cavities of his brain. With the help of these powers, man takes the pictures of the sensibilia, applies his mind to them, and thus abstracts from them other pictures. The ability to think is the occupation with pictures that are beyond sense perception, and the application of the mind to them for analysis and synthesis. This is what is meant by af’idah “hearts” in the Qur’an: ‘he gave you hearing and vision and hearts’ Af’idah ‘hearts’ is the plural of fu’ad .It means here the ability to think (45).

Then he goes on talking about the first degree of thinking of the discerning intellect (al-‘aqlul al-tamyizi), the second done by experimental intellect (‘al-‘aql al-tajribi) learning by experience, the third the speculative intellect (‘al-‘aql al-nazari’) giving out knowledge by thinking without practical application, and so on in the theoretical plain, until man becomes perfect in his reality, becoming pure intellect; this is human reality. (46) Then he goes on talking about the thought process and how that relates to human actions, and how that thinking leads man to perfection and success.

Then he talks about the emergence of the traditional and the rational sciences in an integrated manner, giving the summary of the sciences then available in human civilization in a unified way, giving their strong points, features, and also weak points.

He speaks about the Qur’an ic sciences, the traditions, fiqh, usul al-fiqh, Sufism, and Arabic studies; he speaks of the various intellectual sciences like logic, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and the rest, as mentioned in the summary above.

All in all he speaks as representing the Islamic intellectual tradition; even while giving his views which appear as original, he is speaking on behalf of tradition and not going against Islamic intellectual tradition.

His views about the appearance of intellectual sciences and the crafts in urban settled civilization, and his concept of ‘added intelligence’ (‘al-‘aqlul mazid’) is indeed interesting and revealing, showing his grasp of the relationship between settled urban civilization and the appearance of intellectual sciences and technical skills, with the attending consequences in the development of culture. He talks of ‘al-‘aqlul-mazid’ as developed in settled civilization making some groups of people being so advanced intellectually and artistically.

His emphasis of ‘malakah’ is another point of importance in relation to intellectual culture and technical and scientific and linguistic skills. The word ‘malakah’ is used by him to mean established habit in the human personality; he applies it to linguistic, intellectual and mechanical skills. That is why he speaks of ‘malakah’ in language, writing, doing things in the physical and mechanical sense, as well as ‘malakah’ in spirituality and spiritual devotions and ethical qualities in the personality and the soul. And this ‘malakah’ is to be obtained by training, repetition, actual act of doing things, thinking, in short by making intellectual, physical, technical, linguistic and spiritual activities, repeating again and again until these become established in the soul; it becomes, as it were, in the expression of the present like “swimming in water for fish and flying in the air for birds”. He even speaks of ‘malakah’ in ‘ibadah and matters of faith.

This discourse about thinking and intellectual culture, with the various modes of thinking, leading to various types of intellectual capabilities, in advanced settled urban centers of civilization, including fostering ‘al-‘aq al-mazid’, is indeed relevant for the present day Muslims in uplifting them to the intellectual awareness so urgently needed in facing the present global situation. This is the text which will help them to develop this awareness leading to the necessary action in remedying their situation in the intellectual and technological fields.

And in relation to the importance of developing strong well established customary practices in civilization which will ensure stability and strength, he says:

Sedentary people observe (a) particular (code of) manners (‘adab’) in everything they undertake and do or do not do, and they thus acquire certain ways of making a living, finding dwellings, building houses, and handling their religious and worldly matters (‘wa umur al-din wa al-dunya’), including their customary affairs, their dealings with others (wa ‘adatihim wa mu’amalatihim’), and all the rest of their activities. Thesse manners (‘adab’) constitute a kind of limitation which may not be transgressed, and at the same time, they are crafts (‘sana’i’) (that) later generations take over from the earlier ones. No doubt, each craft has a proper place within the arrangement of the crafts, influences the soul and causes it to acquire an additional intelligence (‘al ‘aql al-mazid’), which prepares the soul for accepting still other crafts. The intellect is thus conditioned for a quick reception of knowledge. (47)

Next, the present writer would like to comment favourably on his contribution on the concept of ‘asabiyyah or group feeling, which is originally based on blood relationship but later extended to other lasting relationship making people loyal to one another.

Of course this is not within the ‘asabiyyah which is prohibited by the Prophet in the tradition meaning ‘Not among us is he who calls people to ‘asabiyyah’ or ‘who dies in ‘asabiyyah’ (48). The ‘asabiyyah prohibited by the Prophet is defined in the tradition as ‘you help your brother in injustice’ (49). And in Islamic legal discourse, Imam al-Nawawi says that when a person loves his people and his group and family, that is not ‘asabiyyah (prohibited by the Prophet – uem) and hence if he is a witness his testimony for his people and friend is accepted by the court and not rejected. (50) This ‘asabiyyah can be synonym for “positive nationalism” of Said Nursi – may Allah shower His mercy on him – when he says: “Positive nationalism arises from an inner need of social life and is the cause of mutual assistance and solidarity, it ensures a beneficial strength; it means for further strengthening Islamic brotherhood.” (51) Ibn Khaldun himself cites in its support the tradition meaning “Allah has not sent a prophet but he is under the protection of the strength of his people (fi man’atin min qaumihi’)”. And he says when a prophet who is capable of doing things with miracles is still supported by Allah with the ‘asabiyyah of his people then we all the more need this support.

Hence this positive nationalism or ‘asabiyyah should be supported and encouraged so that effective reforms can be done within the Muslim society as a basis for seriolus and planned civilizational efforts.

Negative qualities:

Negative qualities which are likely to cause downfall of civilization should be avoided: loss of ‘asabiyyah by taking the necessary steps to stem the tide, succumbing to excessive luxurious life should be checked by invitation to life of moderation with religious and spiritual education and exhortation, life of ease should be checked by educating people in the life of discipline, intellectual laxity is to be checked by encouraging intellectual activity and excellence, life of immorality is to be checked by education, exhortation, example, law enforcement, and improvement in family values and neighbourly responsibility in the light of Islamic values. And excessive entertainment culture should be checked by providing alternative modules and education in healthy artistic activities.

Wallahu a’lam.

Conclusion:

In conclusion this paper argues that the Khaldunian intellectual and civilizational discourse is of paramount importance for the present times –together with other mainstream Islamic discourses of that category-for helping Muslims to regenerate their identity and civilization while coming to grips with the present cultural and intellectual challenges of this age. The Khaldunian discourse giving helpful suggestions in the domains of world-view, epistemology, axiology, and civilizational guidance in the educational, social, and cultural arena plus the all important emphasis on intellectual culture and knowledge in an all-embracing view, nurtured in the tawhidic vision will be most helpful in the efforts towards such a goal of achieving “the most excellent” community.

Wallahu a’lam

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Notes:

*Paper presented at the Conference on Ibn Khaldun organized by the Department of History at the International Islamic University Malaysia, 23rd July 2003.

(1)               Concerning his life and thought, the following are useful: Mohammad Abdullah Enan, Ibn Khaldun His Life and Work, Muhammad Aqshraf, Lahore; Walter J. Fischel, Ibn Khaldun in Egypt, His Public Functions and Historical Research, 1382-1406, in A Study in Islamic Historiography, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967; Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History: Selections from the prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun 0f Tunis (1332-140-6, Wisdom of the East Series, London, John Murray, 1950; Muhsin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History; A Study in the philosophic Foundations of the Science of Culture, London, George Allen and Unwin, 1957; Franz Rosenthal, trans. The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to History, By Ibn Khaldun, Bollingen Series, XLIII. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1958;also see “Ibn Khaldun and Thucydides”, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol.92/Number 2/April-June 1972, pp. 250-270 (for which the present writer is grateful to Dr Muhammad Zainy Uthman of ISTAC UIAM); “Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad ibn Khaldun (1332-1406/732-808) in http://cis-org/voices/k/khaldun_mn.htm; Dr A Zahoor, “Ibn Khaldun”, http://www.salam.muslimonline.com/~azahoor/khaldun.html; also in http://www.ummah_org.uk/history/Scholars/KHALDUN.html; Ibrahim M.Oweiss, “Ibn Khaldun the father of Economics”, http://georgetown.edu/oweiss/ibn.htm;”ibn Khaldun” in www.//britannica.com “home-philosophers-ibn khaldun”, http://www.989.com/Philosophers/Khaldun_ibn.htm; “Letter from Cairo”, http://www.sis.gov.eg/public/letter/htm1/text153.htm; “Economics of Ibn Khaldun”, http://www.uwplatt.edu/~soofi/IBN.html;”History of Economic Thought”, http://www.ecohistory.Amg.com/khaldun .htm; “Political Science”, Prof.R.w.Cox, http://heiwww.unigue.ch/~Krause/gnet/cox.htm;”muslim-1;Great Muslim Scientists”, on ibn Khaldun http://www.//students.missouri.edu/ists/muslim-1/0324htm;Abd al-rahman ibn Khaldun the historian, http://www.islamicresources.com/Prominent_Muslims/others/abdur-rehman-ibn-khaldun-histori.htm; “Lessons from ibn khaldun”, http://www.freepublic.com/forum/a3ac4cb4243a9.htm;”ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Social Thought”, http://www.build-a-webpage.com/society/aziz6/;ibn Khaldun’s observation on history, empires, http://www.humanistictexts.org.ibn_khaldun.htm; “Ibn Khaldun His Life and Work”, by Muhammad Hozien – http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/klf.htm; Hassan Ali Jamsheer,”Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406). The Muqaddimah – History…”, http://www.ibidem.infocentrum.com/ksiazki/83-907031-3-Osum.html; ”Rise and Fall Ibn Khaldun and the Effects of Taxation Chapter 15”, http://www.ryerson.ca/~lovewell/khaldun.html.

(2)               Mohammad Abdullah Enan, Ibn Khaldun His Liufe and Work, pp.9-10.

(3)               ibid., p.34.

(4)               ibid,p.38.

(5)               “Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad ibn Khaldun…”, (http://www.cis-ca.org/voices/k/khaldun_mn.htm )

(6)               Mohammad Abdullah Enan, op. cit., p.67.

(7)               Walter J.Fischel, Ibn Khaldun in Egypt…, pp.46- 49

(8)               ibid., 67-68.

(9)               Abderrahmane Lakhassi, “Ibn Khaldun” in History of Islamic Philosophy, edited by S.H.Nasr,  and O. Leaman (London:Routledge , 353.cf “Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad ibn Khaldun, http://www.cis-ca.org/voices/k/khaldun_mn.htm footnote 26.

(10)           James Kalb, “Ibn Khaldun and Our Age”. http://www.counterrevolution.net/kalb_texts/khaldun.html

(11)           ibid.

(12)           ibid.

(13)           ibid.

(14)           From Jude Wanniski, “Ibn Khaldun and the Origins of Society”, Supply–Side University Economics Lesson #8 (http://www.polyconomics.com/searchbase/11-12-99.html)

(15)           Ibid …

(16)           ibid. (11-19-99.html.)

(17)           http://www.polyconomics.com/searchbase/11-19-99.html

(18)           ibid.

(19)           ibid.

(20)           John W. Bennet “Comments on ‘Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology’, originally appeared in American Anthropology, 68:215-226, 1991, then in www.eaanet.org/gad/history/Ollrowecomment.pdf.

(21)           ibid.

(22)           See in www.mepc.org.public_asb/journal_vol5/9801_amirouche.asp

(23)           “Graduate Seminars in Cultural and Critical Studies Fall 2003” in http://www.english.pitt.edu/graduate /Seminars.htm

(24)           In www.learning.berkeley.edu/holub/articles/tfotss.pdf

(25)           ibid.

(26)           In “INQUIRY. Refloating the Intellectual Enterprise of Islam”, in http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/inquiry3.php

(27)           in “Ibn Khaldun and Education”, in http://www.renaissance.com.pk/novrefl2y1.html

(28)           ibid.

(29)           See in http://www.mendaki.org.sg/content_files/khaldune.pdf

(30)           ibid.

(31)           See http://www.ryerson.ca/~lovewell/khaldun.html.

(32)           ibid.

(33)           Cited in Issawi, op.cit, cf.ibid.

(34)           ibid.

(35)           ibid.

(36)           Akbar Ahmed, “Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West To-Day” (http://www.mideasti.org/pdf/ibnKhaldun20-45.pdf)

(37)           http://www.risale-nur.com.tr/rnk/eng/letters/26thletter.html

(38)           ibid.

(39)           Incidentally the “Malay” concept in the present understanding is not racist but rather cultural and civilizational, because being “Melayu” is: being a Muslim, speaking Malay and practicing Malay customs. This is very much asking to ‘asabiyyah principle of ibn Khaldun, even though originally concerned with blood relationship then later extended to other relationships of long standing in life.

(40)           Al-Muqaddimah, tr Rosenthal vol. 3, pp. 38-39.

(41)           ibid., p. 40.

(42)           ibid. p. 41.

(43)           ibid.p. 43.

(44)           Muqaddimah, tr. F. Rosenthal, vol. 2, pp. 411ff.

(45)           ibid. vol.2. p. 412.

(46)           ibid.2. p. 413.

(47)           ibid.2. p. 432.

(48)           hadith no. 7657 in the Kanz al-‘Ummal of Muttaqi al-Hindi.

(49)           ibid. hadith no. 7654.

(50)           See Raud al-talibin vol.IV on witnesses and their conditions.

(51)           http://www.risale-inur.com.tr/rnk/eng/letters/26letter.html

The Challenges of Religious Diversity in Malaysia

Bismillahi’r-Rahmani’r-Rahim

Nahmaduhu wa nusalli ‘ala Rasulihil-Karim

THE CHALLENGES OF RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN MALAYSIA

BY

MUHAMMAD ‘UTHMAN EL-MUHAMMADY

Bi’awnika Ya Latif! Due to certain historical circumstances destiny has made it that Malaysia has been given the tremendous task of forging harmonious collective life among its inhabitants consisting of various religious and cultural groups, especially during the post-merdeka period. The citizens of the country consisting of representatives of such diverse civilizations as Muslims, predominantly Malays, Buddhists, predominantly Chinese, then Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and others, have to live with each other as neighbours. Compared to many societies with such multi-religious and multi-cultural nature, our country, due to the wisdom, tolerance and the spirit of giving –and take of its leaders, has emerged as a successful one. History has proved it clearly, in spite of comments to the contrary from certain quarters which would like to see it otherwise, for reasons known only to them.

There are challenges, of course, to improve upon the situation, so that that harmony will continue, and will improve, making the situation a better one, especially after September 11 with Islam being made the target of suspicion wherever there are Muslims. It is an unfortunate turn of events that a civilization which has been victimized a number of times in history with such devastations as the destruction of its civilization and “ethnic cleansing” of its adherents for a number of times with events in Spain and then the Crusades and recent events in modern times has now been stigmatized as “terrorist”, whereas others are not so stigmatized, in spite of terrorism having been perpetrated by some of its adherents.

Track record of a high degree tolerance of this civilization has been historically proven in the Muslim period in Spain, with Christians and Jews living in harmony with Muslims, with the Jews achieving their golden period, never achieved again thereafter, and non-Muslims living in harmony during the Ottoman period with the “millet” system, should give some lessons for people of the present times. The recent comments by the Secretary-general of the UN about the world organization and the acts of omission and commission of some countries should lead thoughtful and sincere people committed to ethics, morality and real human rights to reflect and do some introspective thinking before giving adverse comments about other nations. Recent events seem to suggest that humanity has not improved, if not to the contrary, in terms of practicing compassion and human brotherhood, in spite of all the rhetoric and talk about high-sounding noble values and aspirations.

Malaysia is a small country, and it has in its own way tried to put into practice the lesson of living in harmony and tolerance among such diverse cultural and religious groups as mentioned above. Of course there are so much more to be done, and by God’s Grace we hope to achieve much more in future. Those who would like to give adverse comments about our performance, we hope, will first set their own house in order, and then mention constructively, in the spirit of compassion among mankind, things which we should do to improve our situation. If this attitude is put into practice, the world would be a better place to live in. It is also in keeping with Christ’s “love thy neighbour…”, and the Prophet’s teaching about the brotherhood among the children of Adam and the creatures of God being figuratively “the family of God” (“iyal Allah”), and living according to the Tao in far eastern doctrine about the tao, of harmony with the way of heaven and earth, the harmony of the “yang” and “yin”. It is also in harmony with the disinterested action of the “Bhavadgita”.

There is the challenge of cool-headed dialogue among intellectuals and leaders of the cultural and religious groups, coming together, like the present one, with the idea of seeing the intellectual and spiritual contours of the various religions, so that the meeting points can be understood, not with the idea of blurring the real characteristics, the similarities and the differences, but with the idea of understanding where there are real differences, so that we respect the differences, and where there are similarities, so that we encourage the improvement in the similarities, for enhancing harmonious living. And this is done with intellectual seriousness and not with a false sense of superiority and disdain.

Then there is the necessity for respecting what can be called as “spiritual privacy” of the various collectivities; just as we have psychological privacy, privacy, in which we do not let out our secrets to people not relevant to it, the privacy of the body, in which we do not expose certain parts of the body, out of natural sense of modesty-barring aside people who already have lost this sense, for some reasons only known to them, the privacy of the bed-room in which we do not expose ourselves in that situation, barring aside other people who generate income from doing so, so there are spiritual aspects of privacy. The priest in the holy of holies has got to be alone there, cannot be disturbed in that spiritual privacy; the food in the Muslim yearly festival of sacrifice is of such a nature. This has got to be understood and respected, and this should not be construed as exclusive attitude as opposite of the inclusive attitude. Aspects of the Islamic sacred law fall into this category, and people who just have paper qualifications only, or know from personal readings only, should not comment adversely on these. Muslims are duty-bound not to do the same thing. The Qur’an teaches them not to vilify the objects of worship of others deemed not in harmony with the reality of the scheme of things from their perspective, for then they will vilify God worshipped by Muslims, and it becomes like they themselves are vilifying Allah. This serious attitude towards things deemed sacred should be inculcated; this is not about saying that things should be blurred so that people will think that things are all the same creating spiritual and intellectual confusion, creating more harm than good. This is about understanding things as they are and responding to them with spiritual and intellectual propriety.

There is the challenge of all the religions facing the phenomenon of cultural trivialization and gradual loss of cultural identity and values, and how they should unite to face this danger. What is meant here is the gradual loss of interest to understand the deeper implications of the teachings and practices of the religions, and concentrating on the paraphernalia, not attaching them to the inner core of the principles and values. And added to this there is the cultural trivialization and concentration on entertainment culture from foreign sources. The consequences are seen: for instance we see young people dying their hair yellow so that they look like some one who is an icon of the entertainment media; it is if they are ashamed of coming from their culture and looking in that way and with that colour. Then there are cases of elderly people in some cities committing suicide because they are no more cared by the young because the young would like them to abandon their houses and live in old folk’s homes; the world is a stage for the youthful; the elderly should be in old folk’s home. Respect and care for the elderly is disappearing. This is happening in the society. Some people mention that this is the influence of Hollywood culture. Only God knows. But this is a challenge which must be faced by all the religions and cultures, and they must face it together.

The various representatives of Asian cultures of the country have to face cultural domination of foreign cultural elements, and this will be cultural disaster for the rich heritage of diverse cultures of the country.

Then there is the consumerism culture: people are behaving as if they are worshipping the devil of a cult: a cult of buying things more than what they actually need just to be with the times as fashionable consumers. This is against all the teachings and values of the eastern cultures and civilizations. So some people say: the new cult is that the temple is the mega-mall, the rite is the shopping spree, the sacred things are the colour TV, the refrigerator, the air-conditioner, etc. The religions and cultures have to face this challenge together so that the principles and values are relevant and effective in moulding members of the society who are moral, disciplined, serious, respectful of others, hardworking, good, law-abiding citizens and patriotic. Other issues are side-issues when compared to this principal issues. Others from outside our country or culture should be heard in relation to our ultimate interests according to our philosophies, and not otherwise. Exceptions can be made in relation to universal issues agreed upon by all the nations as done by the UN. One example of things done by seeing our ultimate interest was the Malaysian economic step taken after the recent crisis in the region because of international manipulators of the currency.

The other aspects of the challenge are related to globalization; how global trends are making people more stressful; people are no more related to each other directly, hence their relationship is becoming more “faceless”, only communicating through gadgets, hand phones, etc., people are traveling more often, hence there is no more concept of neighbourhood and the traditional association, and stable relationship and respecting people because you “know” them really because you are living in the same neighbourhood, etc. People are becoming more and more rootless, more and more drawn into “the technological intoxicated zone”.

Then there is the challenge of post-modernism thinking which consists of the rejection of the grand narratives- the religions and the fundamental discourses, the rejection of absolute values and criteria about the truth and right and wrong, and the blurring of reality and the images. All these will lead to the withering away of the principles and values in the civilizations. There is the spreading of liberalism of the religions. This is emptying of the religions and civilizations from sacred and fundamental values, including family values. This has got to be faced squarely by all the religious traditions of the country. Other issues will appear as non-issues when seen in this fundamental philosophical perspective. This is the evil dragon which will swallow all and everybody. All have to get united to face this evil dragon.

The representatives of the various eastern civilizations in Malaysia have to be united in facing these challenges. The fundamental values about human relationships in the various traditions have got to be re-learned and their relevance seen in the present global perspective.

Then the country is also facing the global competition. The various religions have to help the leaders of the country to strengthen the survival of the identity and the economy of the country in the face of globalization onslaught, based on free and unbridled play of market forces; otherwise there will be another form of imperialism.

These are some of the challenges which the religious and cultural diversity of Malaysia has to face or is in fact facing now, and they must get united in forums and other ways so that such challenges are met with effectively. What is of utmost importance is the integrity of the various religions and cultures are preserved, the harmonious life continued, and improved upon, the cultural identity of the people is intact, the country is strengthened, its principles and values are realized, and differences are resolved through amicable discussions and consultations, without outside interference. With God’s grace the country and the people will survive well and with success in facing the global challenge.

Wallahu a’lam.

The Reality of Prophet Muhammad

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

نحمده ونصلى على رسوله الكريم

THE REALITY OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD[1]

BY:

MUHAMMAD ‘UTHMAN EL-MUHAMMADY[2]

Allah has sent us a messenger as a result of the prayer of Ibrahim –on him be peace- “O our Lord , sent unto them a messenger from among them who will rehearse unto them your signs and instruct them in the Book and Wisdom, and purify them; You are Exalted in Power Infinite in Wisdom” [3]As a result of this prayer answered by Allah, our Prophet was sent and there emerged in history the community of Muslims, called by Allah “You are the best of nation brought forth for mankind, you command to do good and you prohibit evil and you believe in Allah”[4].

Before anything else, we should remind ourselves of the unparalleled excellence of prophecy. Concerning the excellence of and necessity for prophecy in the life of mankind, ibn al-Qayyim has made an important observation. He says (in Miftah al-Sa’adah)[5]:

‘If it has not been for prophecy there would not have been in this world useful knowledge, righteous deeds, and goodness in the life of mankind, and there would not have been any foundation for government, and mankind would have been like animals, and ferocious beasts and harmful dogs, some of them at enmity with some others.

Therefore anything good in this world is a result of prophecy, and everything evil occurring in this world or whatever will happen are all as a result of the veiling of the results of prophecy and studies concerning it. Hence this world is like a body, and its soul is prophecy, without the soul the body will not have its support. Consequently, when there are no results of prophecy and its study in human life), the earth will have convulsions, the creatures therein will be destroyed, and there will be no support of life except with the influences of prophecy (and studies concerning it)”.

After keeping in mind the importance of prophecy, we come to the person of the Prophet himself. –peace and blessings be upon him. Concerning his attitude and position in relation to the believers , the Qur’an puts it clearly , among others in the verse is:

لَقَدْ جَاءكُمْ رَسُولٌ مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ عَزِيزٌ عَلَيْهِ مَا عَنِتُّمْ حَرِيصٌ عَلَيْكُم بِالْمُؤْمِنِينَ رَؤُوفٌ رَّحِيمٌ

فَإِن تَوَلَّوْاْ فَقُلْ حَسْبِيَ اللّهُ لا إِلَـهَ إِلاَّ هُوَ عَلَيْهِ تَوَكَّلْتُ وَهُوَ رَبُّ الْعَرْشِ الْعَظِيمِ

Now hath come unto you an Messenger from amongst yourselves: it grieves him that ye should perish: ardently anxious is he over you: to the Believers is he most kind and merciful.[6] But if they turn away, Say: “(Allah) sufficeth me: there is no god but He: On Him is my trust,- He the Lord of the Throne (of Glory) Supreme!”[7]

This is as it were the ‘soul’ of the Prophet; and its impact in human life is such that, as experienced by sincere believers , when recited, the person will be in security and safety for the day unless, of course, if it is fated that he will meet his ‘ajal’.

As stated in ‘Tafsir ibn Kathir’ concerning this verse [8] Ja’far bin Abi Talib told al-Najashi , and Mughirah bin Shu’bah to the Persian Kisra, that Allah has sent unto them a messenger from among them, they knew his lineage, qualities, his activities , truthfulness and trushworthiness.Then in the traditions there are statements about him being born out of true marriage, continuously from the time of Adam until the time he was born to his parents; then him being sent with religion termed as ‘al-hanifiyyah al-samhah’ –true promordial religion characterized by easiness as to its practices and precepts; him being so anxious that good worldly and eternal benefits reach the believers .Such is his concern for humanity that there is nothing which will bring anyone to paradise and nothing which will cause anyone go to hell except he will explain these to them.[9]

Reality of the Prophet –peace and blessings be upon him – as a man is stated in the Qur’an in the verse [10]

قُلْ إِنَّمَا أَنَا بَشَرٌ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَى إِلَيَّ أَنَّمَا إِلَهُكُمْ إِلَهٌ وَاحِدٌ فَمَن كَانَ يَرْجُو لِقَاء رَبِّهِ فَلْيَعْمَلْ عَمَلاً صَالِحاً وَلَا يُشْرِكْ بِعِبَادَةِ رَبِّهِ أَحَداً

“Say , I am but a man (‘bashar’) like yourselves, but the revelation has come down to me , that your God is one God whoever expects to meet his Lord, let him work righteousness, and, in the worship of his Lord, admit no one as partner.”

Concerning this verse we have in the commentary of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi rh that this means[11] :

Know that when Allah explains the perfection of Divine Speech, he asks Prophet Muhammad –peace and blessings be upon him – to follow the way of humility; so He asks him to say :’Say I am a man like you, it has been revealed to me …”, that is there is no distinguished quality separating between me and you all, the only thing is that revelation has been given to me that there is no god except Allah the one , the Self-Sufficient God, Besought by all .He is like a man like every body else ( a ‘bashar’; yet he is being revealed with the eternal truths of the Qur’anic revelation). That makes him stand far above us with his universal and exalted nature, worthy of being emulated. That is why , in the same order of meanings he is ‘the leader of mankind’ (sayyid walad Adam, and this is not self-praise’ (wa la fakhra).

Then concerning the exalted nature of the personality of the Prophet it is explained in the ‘Tafsir ibn Kathir’ (verse 4 of Surah al-Qalam ‘you are in exalted from of character’ ) that ‘you are in a great treligion’, namely Islam, on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbas. Atiyyah explains it to me ‘in a great spiritual propriety’ (‘adabin azim’); and then on the authority of Qatadah , that he has asked about the ethical nature of the Prophet s.a.w. and that Aishah replied that ‘his ethical nature is the Qur’an’ itself. The same explanation about the nature of the moral character of the Propeht s.a.w. being the Qur’an is given in the narration of Imam Ahmad.[12]

Concerning his moral and spiritual grandeur Allah has said that “You are (O Muhammad) on an exalted form of character”[13]And because of such a great moral nature worthy of emulation, for human salvation, Allah has mentioned his personality as the most excellent example to be followed. This is mentioned in the verse which means “ You have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct) for everyone whose hope is in Allah and the last Day, and who engages much in the praise of God”.[14]

Concerning the moral stature of the Messenger s.a.w. there are numerious statements from the traditions of the Prophet s.a.w. Among these are the following:

On the authority of Anas rd he said that “The prophet s.a.w. was the best of man in terms of moral conduct (ahsana’n-nas khuluqan).[15]And on the authority of Safiyyah bint Huyay rd the mother of the believers she is reported to have said: I have not seen a person more excellent thnat the Messenger in terms of moral conduct”.[16] Then, on the authority of Aishah rd when she was askewd about the ethical nature she is reported to have said “His moral nature is the Qur’an”. (kana khuluquhu’l_Qur’an).[17]

There is also a narration on the authority of ‘Ata’ rd that he has said to ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr to describe the Messenger of Allah –peace and blessings be upon him – in the ‘Taurat’ , then he said ‘Yes, by God, he is described in the ‘Taurat’ with the attributes like the ones in the Qur’an (namely) ‘O Prophet, Truly We have sent thee as a witness, a bringer of glad tidings and as a warner , and as a guide or guard (hirzan) for the unlettered people , You are My servant and My Messenger, I name you as the relier (on God) not rude and harsh to people) , nor shouting and yelling in the markets, nor returning evil for evil, but forgets and forgives , and Allah does take him to His Presence (take his life) until he has straightened the millat which has become twisted in nature, by teaching ‘there is no god but Allah’ and has opened with it the eyes which have become blind, and ears which have become deaf, and hearts which have become covered up (with ignorance and negligence).[18]

The Prophet s.a.w. was the most perfect of men in terms of nobility of nature and character, the molst subtle of natures, and the most just of temperament, the most easy in terms of relations with others.He is the seal of prophets and messengers , the leader of those in early and later times.He is reported to have said ( أنا سيد ولد أدم ولا فخر )I am the leader of the children of Adam and that is not a matter of personal pride. He is sent as a mercy to all the worlds as stated in the Qur’an “And We have not sent thee O Muhammad except as a mercy to all the worlds”.[19]

In the hadith he is mentioned as the one who will give the supreme intercesson to all creatures ‘al-shafa’ah al-‘uzama). This is to the effect: “On the authority of Abu Hurairah, the Prophet is reported to have said: ‘People will come to me (on the day of the universal accounting) and theu will say: O Muhammad you are the Messenger of Allah and the Seal of the Prophets, Allah has forgiven you the sins which have been done before and later , please intercede for us in the presence of God, do you not see (the suffering) in which we are in? So I would go and come under the Divine Throne, then I would fall down prostrate to my Lord Full of majesty, then Allah would open up for me words of praise and beautiful outpourings which has not been opened for anyone before me, then Allah would say, O Muhammad raise up your head, You just ask, then I will grant your wish, intercede, you will be granted intercession.[20]

He is also the owner of the Praised station (al-Maqam al-Mahmud). This is stated in the Qur’an ( عسى أن يبعثك ربك مقاما محمودا )[21]

In the tradition narrated by al-Bukhari it is stated on the authority of ibn ‘Umar rd that the Messenger s.a.w. is reported to have said:” On the Day of Judgment, mankind will come following their prophet saying O so and so please intercede, O so and so please intercede, until the matter of intercesson came to Prophet Muhammad s.a.w. , that is the day in which Allah will raise him to the station of praise (al-maqam al-mahmud).[22]

It is stated in traditions that the Messenger would carry the Flag of Praise on the Day of Judgment. He is reported to have said :”On the day of Judgment, the Flag of Praise would be in my hands and that is not a matter of personal pride”.

His spiritual exaltation is indicated by the fact God has forgiven him his past and future ‘sins’.This is clear from the statement in the Qur’an :”Truly We have granted thee a manifest victory, so that God may forgive thee thy past errors and mistakes as well as those to follow and fulfill His favour to thee and guide thee to the Straight path”[23].

His exalted station can be understood from the fact that he will be the first for whom the gates of paradise would be opened. On the authority of Anas bin Malik rd that he said: The Messenger of Allah said: “I will come to the gate of Paradise on the Day of Judgment , then I will request it be opened. The angel guarding it will ask: Who are you? I will respond: I am Muhammad.The angel will reply: I have been ordered not to open this for anyone before you (I have to open it for you now)”.[24]

The traditions gathering all the narratives manifesting his spiritual grandeur and exaltation at the cosmic order can be seen in those covering the stupendous event of the Nocturnal Journey and the Ascension to the Divine Presence in less than one night. The traditions have been recorded in the commentary of ibn Kathir concerning the first verse of the Chapter Bani Isra’il.[25]

From the narrations there will emerge with the utmost clarity his position in relation to God Himself as his ‘beloved one’, in relation to the prophets and messengers of all epochs of history as ‘their leader’, in relation to the believers as his ‘ummah’ or community, giving them, in the day of Judgment intercession, his leading position in the life of the world and life in eternity. His cosmic grandeur will be clear in spite of his relatively ‘human’ image in earthly history. He has appeared , out of Divine Grace, as a mercy to all, giving guidance for their ultimate and earthly salvation.

In relation to his intensity of spiritual contemplation, it is clear that he is the person most devoted to this. On the authority of ‘Abdullah bin al-Shakhir rd that he stated :”I came to the Messenger of God s.a.w. while he was praying, in his breast there is something like droning sound of caldron boiling from (much) weeping”.[26]

Then there is the famous narration by al-Bukhari about him, on the authority of ‘Aishah rd, that the Messenger used to stand up for prayer in the darkness of night, until his feet swelled so much so that Aishah said to him: Why do you exert yourself in this way whereas Allah has forgiven you what is past and what is to happen. He replied “Should I not be a grateful servant?”.[27]

Then there is the famous remark by him in his saying “And the coolness of my eye is being found in prayer”[28] His love of spirituality is so intense that he is reported to have said: “For me to recite ‘Glory be to God’ and ‘all praise be to God”, and “there is no god but Allah” as well as “God is Most Great” is more loveable to me than anything on which the sun shines.[29]

His love of the remembrance is clear from his saying “The analogy of a person who performs the remembrance of his Lord and the one who does not do the remembrance is like one who is alive compared to the one who is dead”.[30]

And there is his saying : “There is no act from the son of Adam which is more effective in guarding him from the punishment of Allah (in Hell) than remembrance of Allah”.[31]

And concerning his habit of always making requests to God, and he is the one most given to this spiritual ‘habitus’ .The request made most by his is the one to the effect “O our Lord, please grant us goodness in this world and goodness in the hereafter and save us from the Fire”.[32]

Then there is the famous narration in relation to the coming down of the verses 190 and 191 of Surah Ali ‘Imran[33].

{ إِنَّ فِي خَلْقِ ٱلسَّمَاوَاتِ وَٱلأَرْضِ وَٱخْتِلاَفِ ٱلْلَّيْلِ وَٱلنَّهَارِ لآيَاتٍ لأُوْلِي ٱلأَلْبَابِ }

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi mentions that Ibn ‘Umar asked Aishah concerning the most amazing thing that she has observed concerning the Messenger of Allah peace and blessings be upon him. She wept and then said: Everything about him is amazing. One night he came close to me then said to me: o Aishah can you allow me to –night to perform my spiritual devotions to my Lord? I said: O Messenger of Allah, truly I desire to be close to you, and I like what you like, so I allow you [to do your devotions]. So he stood up and went to the water bag in the house and performed his ablutions without using the water excessively, then he stood up and prayed, recited from the Qur’an and started to weep, then he raised his hands and began to weep, until his tears fell onto the ground. Then Bilal came to do the call to prayer for the morning prayer; then he saw him weeping. He said; O Messenger of God, God has forgiven what has gone before and what is to come later (of you mistakes and sins) [So how can you weep so much].The Prophet said: Should I not be a servant who is grateful? Then he said (further) How can I not weep since in the night was sent down the verses (truly in the creation of the heavens and the earth there are signs for those who have mature intelligence, they are those who remember their Lord while standing , sitting down and while lying down on their sides, and they contemplate on the creation of the heavens and the earth and then say (out of realization): Truly, our Lord, You have not created all this in vain.[34] Woe to the ones who recite the verse but do not reflect concerning it.[35]

The Prophet –peace and blessings be upon him –has placed so much significance on the development of this aspects of tafakkur and contemplation in man .

And on the authority of Aishah rd his request to Allah mostly, before his demise is “O Lord, truly I seek refuge with You from the evil that I have done and the evil that I have not done”.[36]

Life full of remembrance, prayers, requests from God, contemplation of Him, doing all things and performing all obligations in His Name is the hall mark of the Prophetic life, outwardly and inwardly. It is this nature of the Prophet-with Divine Aid which has been the most decisive factor of his success in his life.

We can refresh our memory with the nature of the success of the Prophet by remembering the formula of real success in the Chapter of the Believers which consists of the following statements from the beginning[37]:

The Believers

In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.

[23:1]The believers must (eventually) win through,-
[23:2]Those who humble themselves in their prayers;
[23:3]Who avoid vain talk;
[23:4]Who are active in deeds of charity;
[23:5]Who abstain from sex,
[23:6]Except with those joined to them in the marriage bond, or (the captives) whom their right hands possess,- for (in their case) they are free from blame,
[23:7]But those whose desires exceed those limits are transgressors;-
[23:8]Those who faithfully observe their trusts and their covenants;
[23:9]And who (strictly) guard their prayers;-
[23:10]These will be the heirs,
[23:11]Who will inherit Paradise: they will dwell therein (for ever).

This set of verses mentions the same pattern : (intense faith manifested in) prayer, purity of morals, discipline in accordance with the sacred law, life lived in the vision realized in the intellect and the will.

The verses above indicate to the utmost the decisive importance of strong and pure faith, the manifestation of God-consciousness in the form of contemplative intellect successfully realized with humility in prayers, avoidance of vain things in life – not only the harmful and prohibited things- the payment of the poor-due, the purity of sex life , hence the preservation of family-values. Included into this scheme of values is the discipline in life in accordance with the sacred law, and the performance of governance and fulfillment of trusts and covenants. This spiritual and intellectual geometry is still of utmost importance and relevance until the present day, whatever the cultural and moral relativists would like to claim to the contrary.

The performance of spiritual devotions –out of pure and sincere faith- with the attending moral and collective discipline in life, the very substance of real success can be seen in another set of verses. These are:

[70:19]Truly man was created very impatient;-
[70:20]Fretful when evil touches him;
[70:21]And niggardly when good reaches him;-
[70:22]Not so those devoted to Prayer;-
[70:23]Those who remain steadfast to their prayer;
[70:24]And those in whose wealth is a recognised right.
[70:25]For the (needy) who asks and him who is prevented (for some reason from asking);
[70:26]And those who hold to the truth of the Day of Judgment;
[70:27]And those who fear the displeasure of their Lord,-
[70:28]For their Lord’s displeasure is the opposite of Peace and Tranquillity;-
[70:29]And those who guard their chastity,
[70:30]Except with their wives and the (captives) whom their right hands possess,- for (then) they are not to be blamed,
[70:31]But those who trespass beyond this are transgressors;-
[70:32]And those who respect their trusts and covenants;
[70:33]And those who stand firm in their testimonies;
[70:34]And those who guard (the sacredness) of their worship;-
[70:35]Such will be the honoured ones in the Gardens (of Bliss).

Such life of devotional collectedness must necessarily menifest itself in compassion. That is why he was sent as a mercy to all the worlds.

His compassion to those who make mistakes is to such a degree that there is a narration about a young person requesting his permission to commit adultery and he gave a very persuasive and heart touching response. The narration is as follows: On the authority of Abu Umamah rd that he said: A young person came to the Prophet s.a.w and said: ‘O Messenger of Allah , please grant me permission to commit adultery, then the people cried out against him, saying no no. The Messenger said to him: Come near, and he went near him. The messenger said: Do you like to do that to your mother? He replied: No. By Allah, May Allah make me your ransom, and people do not like to do that to their mothers. Then he asked: Do you like to do that to your daughter? He replied: No by God, people do not like to do that to their daughters. The Messenger said: Do you like to do that to your sister? He replied: No, by God, may Allah make my your ransom, people all of them do not like to do that to their sisters…(finally) the Messenger placed his hand on the young man’s hand and prayed: O Allah, forgive him his sins, purify his heart, and guard his private parts ; and thereafter the youth did not like such acts( again)[38].

His love for the ummah is to such a degree that when God has granted him with the special request which will be granted without fail, he has delayed the request until the time for getting intercession for the members of his community. He is reported to have said:

- ( لكل نبي دعوة مستجابة ، فتعجل كل نبي دعوته ، وإني أختبأت دعوتي شفاعة لأمتي يوم القيامة ، فهي نائلة إن شاء الله من مات لا يشرك بالله شيئا ) [البخاري] ؛ ولذا قال تعالى عنه : {لقد جاءكم رسول من أنفسكم عزيز عليه ما عنتم حريص عليكم بالمؤمنين رؤوف رحيم }

For every prophet there has been granted a request which will be granted without fail, and every prophet has made his request, as for myself I have delayed the request for getting intercession for my community on the last Day. It will, God willing, reach (and be effective) for anyone who has died (in my community) without associating anything with God.[39]

Because of this Allah has said[40] :

{لقد جاءكم رسول من أنفسكم عزيز عليه ما عنتم حريص عليكم بالمؤمنين رؤوف رحيم }

Allah the Exalted has said :

( لقد كان لكم في رسول الله أسوة حسنة لمن كان يرجو الله واليوم الآخر وذكر الله كثيرا)

Truly you have in the Messenger of Allah a most beautiful pattern (of conduct) for the one who has hope in Allah and the Last Day and remember Allah much and often.[41]

Allah has commanded us to obey the Messenger after our obedience to Him.

Allah has obliged the believers to obey the Messenger, follow his example of conduct , follow his life-wont, respect and revere him as well as to love him above loving our fathers, children, spouses, families, our business and wealth and belongings. Whoever does not follow such a path of life, Allah has stated His Warning. This is in the verse[42]:

)قُلْ إِنْ كَانَ ءابَاؤُكُمْ وَأَبْنَاؤُكُمْ وَإِخْوَانُكُمْ وَأَزْوَاجُكُمْ وَعَشِيرَتُكُمْ وَأَمْوَالٌ اقْتَرَفْتُمُوهَا وَتِجَارَةٌ تَخْشَوْنَ كَسَادَهَا وَمَسَاكِنُ تَرْضَوْنَهَا أَحَبَّ إِلَيْكُمْ مِنَ اللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِ وَجِهَادٍ فِي سَبِيلِهِ فَتَرَبَّصُوا حَتَّى يَأْتِيَ اللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِ وَاللَّهُ لا يَهْدِي الْقَوْمَ الْفَاسِقِينَ (

Say: If it be that your fathers, your sons, your brothers, your mates, or your kindred; the wealth that ye have gained; the commerce in which ye fear a decline: or the dwellings in which ye delight – are dearer to you than God, or His Apostle, or the striving in His cause;- then wait until God brings about His decision: and God guides not the rebellious.

Allah has said:

)ومن يطع الله والرسول فأولئك مع الذين أنعم الله عليهم من النبيين والصديقين والشهداء والصالحين وحسن أولئك رفيقاً *ذلك الفضل من الله وكفى بالله عليما(ً

Whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger , they are with those on whom Allah has granted them His boons consisting of the Prophets, the Sincere People of Truth, the Martyrs, and the Pious Ones; how beautiful is their fellowship; that is the boon from Allah and sufficient is Allah having Knowledge of this. [43]

He is reported to have said: truly the most beloved to me and the one closest to me in position on the day of judgment is the one who is best in conduct (ahasinuhum akhlaqan).

There are so many remarks by him about good conduct as a result of true faith and God-consciousness (that is the development of the contemplative intellect apart from the rational and analytical one).

The most perfect believer in the matter of faith is the man who id most excellent in conduct.

There is nothing more weighty on the Balance for the believer on the Day of Judgment other than good conduct .Allah hates the one who is shameless, impudent and loathsome in character.

He says : The most perfect believer in terms of faith is the one most excellent in character, and the best among you is the one with the best conduct to the members of his household.

These are some of the facets about the reality of the perfect man, the messenger, the leader of men, the leader of both worlds, the leader of the messengers and the prophets, our beloved prophet peace and blessings be upon him. We are supposed to pray for blessings, honour and peace upon him and his family as well as his companions and those who follow him. Allah says[44]:

(إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ وَمَلاَئِكَـتَهُ يُصَلُّونَ عَلَى ٱلنَّبِيِّ يٰأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ صَلُّواْ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلِّمُواْ تَسْلِيماً)

God and His angels send blessings on the Prophet: O ye that believe! Send ye blessings on him, and salute him with all respect.

When the Messenger of Allah was asked how shall the believers ‘bless’ him, he replied, you say:

اللهم صلِّ على محمد وعلى آل محمد كما صليت على إبراهيم وعلى آل إبراهيم، وبارك على محمد وعلى آل محمد كما باركت على إبراهيم وعلى آل إبراهيم إنك حميد مجيد “.

O Lord bless Prophet Muhammad and the family of Muhammad just as You have blessed Ibrahim and the family of Ibrahim, and bestow grace on Muhammad and the family of Muhammad just as You have bestowed grace on Ibrahim and the family of Ibrahim, truly You are Worthy of all Praise Most Glorious.

Then there is the question why does he need our blessing seeing that Allah and the angles have already blessed him? Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Razi replies that [45] this is not because the Prophet needs this , otherwise there is no necessity for the blessings of the angels after getting the blessings of Allah. This blessing by us is for manifesting his greatness , just as Allah has obliged us to remember Him whereas He is not in need of it; it is for manifesting His Greatness on our behalf, as a Mercy from Him unto us, so that He will give us the rewards just as he has said: “Whoever bless me once Allah will bless him tenfold”. And Allah has not left the Prophet to be indebted, as it were, to the community , by reason of their blessings, so that He has rewarded them from him, with blessings for the ummah, in the statement (وَصَلّ عَلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ صَلَوٰتَكَ سَكَنٌ لَّهُمْ)

Verily thy prayers are a source of security for them.[46] May Allah make us among those who bless the Prophet much and often together with the efforts we make to make the remembrance of Allah much and often. Amin.

In the ‘Tafsir ibn Kathir’[47] it is stated that ‘salawat from Allah and the angels’ mean:  (وقال أبو عيسى الترمذي: وروي عن سفيان الثوري وغير واحد من أهل العلم، قالوا: صلاة الرب: الرحمة، وصلاة الملائكة: الاستغفار. )

That is according to al-Tirmidhi: narrated from Sufyan al-Thauri and not only one from among the men of knowledge: ‘salawat’ from God is ‘mercy’ (‘al-rahmah)’ from the angels : prayer for forgiveness.

Before concluding we can recollect what others have said about his historical phenomenon unsurpassed even to this day. This is from the observation of Lamartine, the historian . He states:

“If greatness of purpose, smallness of means, and astounding results are the three criteria of human genius, who could dare to compare any great man in modern history with Muhammad? The most famous men created arms, laws and empires only. They founded, if anything at all, no more than material powers which often crumbled away before their eyes. This man moved not only armies, legislations, empires, peoples and dynasties, but millions of men in one-third of the then inhabited world; and more than that, he moved the altars, the gods, the religions, the ideas, the beliefs and souls. . . his forbearance in victory, his ambition, which was entirely devoted to one idea and in no manner striving for an empire; his endless prayers, his mystic conversations with God, his death and his triumph after death; all these attest not to an imposture but to a firm conviction which gave him the power to restore a dogma. This dogma was twofold, the unity of God and the immateriality of God; the former telling what God is, the latter telling what God is not; the one overthrowing false gods with the sword, the other starting an idea with words.

“Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational dogmas, of a cult without images; the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire, that is Muhammad. As regards all standards by which human greatness may be measured, we may well ask, is there any man greater than he?”[48]

In conclusion the present writer would like to emphasize the importance of understanding the nature of our Prophet peace and blessings be upon him, apart from the usual attributes of truthfulness, trustworthiness, communicating the truth, and sagacity in the usual discourse, which must be understood, but also other all-embracing nature of his- of understanding this most amazing man in the whole of existence, nay, the most significant being in the total cosmic order. We should understand him with his Lord, as far as we are able, him with mankind, human civilization, the human soul, him and life in the world and eternity. There is also that aspect apart from this his primordial existence as the light, as the starting point for all cosmic manifestations, which the writer feels is beyond this short simple paper. Whatever it is, we must understand him, respect him, bless him, respect his name, together with other prophets of mankind, respect his family, the companions, respect the mention of his name by others, follow his normative sunnah as much as we can since it is an aspect of his universal norm, in our inner and outer life. May Allah bless us with this understanding ,wisdom as well as unshakable conviction about his perfection – whatever the moral and cultural relativists among the earthlings of the latter days say about this—and cultivate our life in true and firm faith, performing the spiritual devotions, with our prayers, dhikr, and contemplation, developing our contemplative as well rational intelligence together, with learning and others, in harmony, carrying out our ethical and moral life to the utmost of our ability, disciplining ourselves with the sacred law, and performing our family and professional as well as social duties excellently in our social environment of to-day. Let us go forward in cultivating this unshakable faith, this pure effective and empowering spirituality, developing and synergizing the contemplative and the rational aspects of our intelligence, possessing the moral caliber of the strong, the indomitable will for truth, the effective worker for the pleasure of Allah, showering light and coolness as well as services for the servants of Allah, irrespective of creeds, casts and ethnicities. Come, bretheren, let us be strong for the sake of Allah. Say Allah: then let them go on being drowned in their play and mirth. Amin ya Rabbal-alamin.,Wallahu a’lam.

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[1] For presentation in an International Seminar on Spirituality organized by Abdul Aleem Siddiqui Mosque of Singapore, on the 1-3rdSeptember 2006.

[2] Currently the writer is Very Distinguished Academic Fellow of International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization in International Islamic University Malaysia, Commissioner in SUHAKAM, and member of the Board of Directors Integrity Institute Malaysia and Member of Board of Trustees Yayasan Karyawan.

[3] Al-Baqarah.129.

[4] Ali ‘Imrah.110.

[5] Cited in ‘Tafsir ‘Ruh al-Ma’ani’ by al-Alusi’ vol.IX.p.100.

[6] Surah at-Taubah verses 128 Tr Abdullah Yusuf Ali.

[7] At-taubah verse 129.

[8]http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=9&tAyahNo=128&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0

[9] Related by al-Tabarani on the authority of Abu Dharr the Companion.

[10] Chapter of the Cave (18).110.

[11] In at-Tafsir al-Kabir

http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=18&tAyahNo=110&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0

[12] ‘Tafsir ibn Kathir’ commentary on verse 4 chapter al-Qalam. See http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=68&tAyahNo=4&tDisplay=yes&Page=4&Size=1

[13] Surah Nun.4.

[14] Al-Ahzaz.21.

[15] Muttafaq alaihi.

[16] Narrated by al-Tabarani in ‘al-Ausat’ with good isnad (isnad hasan).

[17] Narrated by Muslim in his ‘Sahih’.

[18] Narrated by al-Bukhari.

[19] Surah al-Anbiya’.107.

[20] Muttafaq alaihi (Bukhari and Muslim).

[21] Surah Bani Isra’il.79.

[22] Narrated by al-Bukhari.

[23] Surah al-Fath.1-2.

[24] Narraterd by Muslim.

[25]‘Tafsir ibn Kathir’ vol. 3 verse 1 of Bani Isra’il, recording the traditions about the Isra’ wa al-Mi’raj.

[26] Narrated by Abu Daud.

[27] Narrated by al-Bukhari.

[28] Wa ju’ilat qurrati ‘aini fis-salah.

[29] Narrated by Imam Muslim.

[30] Nartrated by al-Bukhari.

[31] Narrated by al-Tabarani with a hasan isnad.

[32] Muttafaq alaih (al-Bukhari and Muslim).

[33] For the significance of this narration and the meanings of the verses see ‘Tafsir Mafatih al-Ghaib’ by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. See http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=3&tAyahNo=190&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0

[34] Ali Imran verses 190-191.

[35] The present writer would like to observe here the significance of the fact that the two aspects of the human intelligence is combined in their operations in this extremely instructive verses. The dual functions are the contemplative power concerned with contemplating on God and religious verities and the rational and syllogistic power of getting conclusions in thought and knowledge as this increases with systematic experience , controlled observations and thought. Both functions should operate in the human intellect for man’s own salvation. The loss of this contemplative intellect – with prayers, acts of remembrance and others –typified by the famous sentence ‘You worship God as if you see him and if you do not see Him He sees you- has lead to so much disaster in man’s individual and collective life. To add to what has been said: This contemplative intellect is so empowering that the Qur’an states that the believer who has the power of patience, constancy and perseverance with the conditions, can have tenfold strength compared to those who oppose them. And this virtue is the result of the effective functioning of the contemplative intellect, apart from the rational and analytical one. Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Razi rh has alluded to the importance of this aspect of the intellect in his commentary of the verses and elsewhere.

[36] Narrated by al-Nasa’i.

[37] Chapter the Believers verses 1-11.

[38] Narrated by Imam Ahmad.

[39] Narrated by al-Bukhari.

[40] Al-Taubah.129.

[41] Al-Ahzab.21.

[42] Al-Taubah.24.

[43] Al-Nisa’,69-70.

[44] Al-Ahzab.56.

[45] In ‘Tafsir al-Kabir’ concerning the verse. That is also ‘al-Tafsir al-Kabir’ by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi concerning this verse 33.verse 56. See http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=33&tAyahNo=56&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0

[46] At-Taubah.103.

[47] That is also ‘al-Tafsir ibn Kathir’ in http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=33&tAyahNo=56&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0

[48] Lamartine, HISTOIRE DE LA TURQUIE, Paris, 1854, Vol. II, pp. 276-277.

Shaykh Uways bin Muhammad al-Baraawe

Shaykh Uways bin Muhammad al-Baraawe

By Muhammad Imran A. Karim

Introduction

East African Islamic revival owes much debt to the struggles of the Qadiri leader Shaykh Uways bin Muhammad al-Baraawi. From humble origins and modest upbringing, Shaykh Uways emerged as the most eminent hero of traditional Sufi Islam. A combination of exquisite poetry and active proselytizing garnered him huge influence.

From Barawe, he traveled to Baghdad, the hometown of Abdul Qadir al-Jilani, to the Hejaz, then to Zanzibar and finally met a tragic death at the hands of a rival Sufi brotherhood. His travels and preaching arrived at the perfect time to counter the colonial expansion, puritanical onslaught and encroaching Christian missionaries. This paper will discuss the heroic struggle of Shaykh Uways bin Muhammad al-Baraawe as a true martyr and savior of East African Islam.

His Life

In referring to his early life, the main sources of information come from two hagiographies written by his Khalifah Abdul-Rahman ‘Umar al-Qadiri, the Jawhar al-Nafis and Jala’ al-’Aynayn. As translated by S. Samatar in Sheikh Uways bin Muhammad of Baraawe, Uways was ethnically a Black Tunni. He was born in 1847 in Baraawe on the Benaadir Coast. His father, al-Hajj Muhammad b. Bashir, was a minor religious official. Samatar perceived his family background as “well-to-do”, while Choi Ahmed termed it “less than noble”. Whether his family was actually rich, poor, educated or illiterate, the fact of the matter is that Shaykh Uways’s mind was more influenced by his teachers as follows.

Also known as Shehu Awesu in Swahili, Shaykh Uways obtained a simple elementary education in basic religious sciences and only later furthered his studies with eminent scholars. He studied the Qur’an, Qur’anic exegesis, syntax and grammar, legal principles and basic Sufism under the tutelage of one Shaykh Muhammad Tayini al-Shashi in his local vicinity. Apparently excelling in his studies and piety, he caught the attention of his teacher who then introduced him to the Qadiriyya doctrines and took the young student to the place of Qadiriyya’s origins, Baghdad, in approximately 1870.

This peripatetic journey was a turnaround in his spiritual search and religious credibility. He studied with the eminent Qadiri, Sayyid Mustafa b. Salman al-Jilani and later claimed to receive an ijaza from his teacher, thus boosting his reputation. Despite this, B. G. Martin described his training and education as “relatively provincial, mildly uninspired, and above all conservative and conventional.” He also made pilgrimages to Madinah and Makkah during this spell, which normally marks a spiritual milestone for Muslims. And truly so, his life took a drastic turnaround.

In 1883, he made his way back to his hometown for good, a very important journey in enhancing his reputation where he passed through the Hejaz, Yemen and northern Somalia. In northern Somalia, Choi Ahmed claimed through oral tradition that Shaykh Uways met the renowned Qadiri Shaykh Abdul Rahman az-Zayli’i near Qulunqul right before his death to be given complete control of the Qadiriyya in Somalia. On the other hand, S. Samatar claims that Shaykh Uways merely visited his tomb and received a symbolic ijaza to preach. However, both imply that Shaykh Uways successfully established himself as the successor to the much revered Shaykh al-Zayli’i.

As often the case, one’s rise to prominence will always be at the cost of others. Shaykh Uways brought huge reputation as he returned to his hometown of Baraawe. Elevated as a leader of the Qadiriyya in southern Somalia (which later became a sub-branch named after him, the Uwaysiyya), Shaykh Uways began missionary works throughout East Africa. His prominence was met with envy by the rival brotherhoods of Ahmadiya and Saalihiya (B. G. Martin), even his family members (S. Samatar). The intense clash for influence led Shaykh Uways to seek greener pastures, perhaps in emulation of the holy Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) hijra from Makkah to Madinah.

This decision made room for further proselytization that increased his influence. He moved inland and founded Beled al-Amin (translated by Samatar as “Town of Peace”) which flourished into an agricultural town. Bearing testimony of his mass appeal, Samatar mentions that “nomad and farmer flocked to his community, bringing with them gifts in vast amounts of livestock and farm produce”. Freed from external pressure, Shaykh Uways and his followers were able to devote time towards proselytizing the Qadariyya threatening the influence of the Shadhiliyya led by Sayyid Muhammad Maaruf from the Comoros Islands, the Salihiyya of Sayyid Muhammad Abdallah Hassan in northern Somalia and Christian missionaries from inland Ethiopia.

The struggle of Shaykh Uways against the Salihiyya was so intense that he was resolute to being a martyr (Martin). Moving north to curb the influence of radical nationalist and puritanical teachings of Salihiya neo-sufis, Shaykh Uways was tragically murdered by Salihiyya followers in 1909. His death was a shock to even Salihiyya adherents, where Choi Ahmed writes them feeling remorseful. The Sayyid, however, composed a poem to celebrate his brotherhood’s victory, although Choi Ahmed mentions a differing view of the Sayyid’s reaction from northerners.

The tragic ending of the Uwaysiyya leader was compounded with the death of all but one disciple who later carried on the Uwaysiyya legacy (Martin). This remaining disciple composed a moving qasida that eventually became a liturgy of the Uwaysiyya order. Uways’s house was later bought by Shaykh Sufi and turned into the main headquarters of the Uwaysiyya.

Doctrine and Works

In studying biographical portraits of Shaykh Uways, it seems clear that Shaykh Uways’s scholarly works are conservative and mostly concern spiritual upliftment through poetry and short pieces which Samatar describes as “pamphleteer par excellence”. In contrast to other great Sufi leaders of Africa, Shaykh Uways was not much concerned with visions and dreams as is normally the case amongst traditional Sufi leaders, nor changes in worship forms other than that of traditional Qadiri methods.  Choi Ahmed also noted that the Uwaysiyya’s qasidas end with the phrase La ilaha illa llah accompanied by moderate swaying and drums. This openness towards music and dance will of course attract criticism from the puritanical Salihiyya as will be later described.

A significant attribute of Shaykh Uways when reading his works was that he was completely bilingual in both Arabic and Somali as evident in his poetry and pamphlets (Samatar). His literary creativity was demonstrated in being one of the first to write Somali in Arabic script for his Somali poems. Besides theological and sufi matters, Shaykh Uways also participated in a war of words with his northern rival of the Salihiyya, Sayyid Muhammad Abdallah Hassan. In these poems, Shaykh Uways demonstrated his willingness to utilize harsh words of criticism towards his rival. An extensive literary analysis of the two figures by Samatar was concluded with the analogy “Sayyid was the Shakespeare of the Somalis, Sheikh Uways their Martin Luther.”

Influence

His influence pervades throughout East Africa, from islands surrounding Zanzibar to as far west as the Eastern Congo  and as far south as the Tanganyika(Choi Ahmed). His influence in Zanzibar was attributed to his close relationship with the Sultanate, two of whom he took as his Khalifah. This close relationship was established as a result of the Zanzibar Sultan’s encouragement. His widespread appeal is also attributed to the present circumstances of the Benaadir coast where foreign migration robbed local economic domination. The locals thought their calamity correlated with their lack of spiritual strength rather than external circumstances. Sufi orders then “provided a context for exploring these failings and proposing solutions by means of a renewed moral framework” (Reese). This phenomena elevates the status of wadaads (Choi Ahmed) where merchants subsidized activities of the wadaads (Reese). Due to the Qadiriyya’s popularity, of which Shaykh Uways led, his elevated status was most felt.

In terms of social class, the followers of Shaykh Uways ranged from the lowest slaves to the highest of the elites, the Zanzibar sultans who too became Uways’s Khalifas. He appealed to rural farmers as well as urban dancers, where a story quoted by Choi Ahmed states that enjoying his beautiful poetry overwhelmed the pleasure of dancing. In essence, his influence transcended clanship and social hierarchy. This can be traced back to his humble roots as a lowly Black Tunni, his pan-Islam philosophy which transcends cultural and tribal barriers, and openness towards rulers, such as the Ottomans and the Zanzibar sultans. Choi Ahmed sees Shaykh Uways’s organization as being more compatible economically, and openness towards African traditions. This, he conjectures, was learnt from the Baadheere Jihad.

It is important here to understand that Shaykh Uways’s heavy missionary work was not merely to gain personal influence but was linked to a broader objective of Islamic revivalism through links with pan-Islam movements in Ottoman Turkey (the father of his teacher, Salman b. Ali was a close associate of Sultan Abdul Hamid II according to Choi Ahmed) and the Zanzibar sultanate. However, his traditional Qadiri doctrines such as tawassul, karamat, Baraka and veneration of saints clashed with the puritanical Wahhabi-like Salihiya under Sayyid Muhammad Abdallah Hassan.

Rivalry

As aforementioned, Shaykh Uways from southern Somalia was caught in a hostile tussle for influence with the Salihiyya led by Sayyid Muhammad Abdallah Hassan in the north of Somalia that eventually led to his death in 1909. The encounter started by trading poetry lines to attack each other’s personality and beliefs, where Shaykh Uways (and various other contemporary poets) accused his rival as a womanizer, and Sayyid Muhammad replied with aplomb by accusing Uways of bidaah (innovation in matters of religion) (refer to translations of their poetry by Martin and Samatar).

Conclusion

As has been shown, Shaykh Uways is an exemplary figure of piety and holy struggle in emulation of the Prophet of Islam’s message. Coming from a Black Tunni ethnicity, he has shown that one does not need special lineage leading to the Prophet Muhammad, or of Hadrami descent to earn educational and scholarly privileges. Fully understanding the prevailing socio-economic circumstance, Shaykh Uways effectively proselytized to educate the East Africans, overcome clan barriers, and reformed his society in ways not achieved by a nationalist struggle like the prominent Sayyid Muhammad Abdallah Hassan.

References:

Choi Ahmed, Christine, 1993. God, Anti-Colonialism and Dance: Sheekh Uways and the Uwaysiyya, in : Gregory Maddox (ed.), Conquest and Resistance to Colonialism in Africa. New York: Garland Publishing, 145-67.

Martin, Bradford G., 1993. Shaykh Uways bin Muhammad al-Barawi, a Traditional Somali Sufi, in: G. M. Smith and Carl Ernst (eds.), Manifestations of Sainthood in Islam. Istanbul: ISIS, 225-37.

Reese, Scott S., 1999. Urban Woes and Pious Remedies: Sufism in Nineteenth-Century Benaadir (Somalia). Indiana University Press.

Samatar, Said S., 1992. Sheikh Uways Muhammad of Baraawe, 1847-1909. Mystic and Reformer in East Africa, in: Said S. Samatar (ed.), In the Shadows of Conquest. Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, NJ: The Red Sea Press, 48-74.

The Concept of the Muhammadan Light in Malay-Islamic Discourse

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

نحمده ونصلى على رسوله الكريم

THE CONCEPT OF THE MUHAMMADAN LIGHT IN MALAY-ISLAMIC DISCOURSE IN THE CONTEXT OF SUNNI SACRED NARRATIVE: AN EARLY OBSERVATION*

BY

MUHAMMAD ‘UTHMAN EL-MUHAMMADY

God willing, this note will deal with the concept of the Muhammadan Light (“Nur Muhammad”) as explained in a number of Malay-Islamic works of Nur al-Din al-Raniri, Zain al-’Abidin al-Fatani, Nawawi al-Bantani (in Arabic), and a number of others . These explanations will be seen in the context of the Sunni sources like Qur’anic exegesis and the Prophetic traditions. The intention is to locate the sources of the discourse in the Sunni narrative in the light of the intention of the hadith ‘al-din al-nasihah” as explained, among others, by Imam al-Nawawi rh. It is hoped that the inclination to label such a discourse as deviationist or not authentic under the influence of the so-called ‘Salafi’ inclination will be tempered by a sense of moderation in the light of Sunni integrated intellectual narrative. This is also something which is demanded by the Prophetic nature which is not merely “bashar” in the ordinary sense. Positive criticisms are forthcoming and welcomed by the writer who sees himself not as an expert in this field.

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*The present writer is grateful to Ence Aman Hj Hassan of the Pustakan Aman Press of Kota Bharu and also Ence ‘Abd al-’Aziz bin Hj Hassan and their staff –jazakumullahu khairan kathira-for giving permission to the writer to avail himself of the works in their library while preparing for this essay. The present writer is also aware of the fact that the data from Qur’anic exegesis, hadith, shama’il and khasa’is al-nubuwwah or dala’il al-nubuwwah , another category of Sunni narrative, must be taken into consideration.Then there is another aspect to the subject, namely the aspect of the narrative in the form of”stories” which may contain some difficulties. However, the ‘adab’ towards the scholars have to be respected. I am grateful to our friend Zaidi Mohd Hassan for his views.

The present writer is currently Very Distinguished Academic Fellow of ISTAC IIUM

The Text of Shaikh Nur al-Din al-Raniri rh

Shaikh Nur al-Din al-Raniri rh has written on this topic of the Muhammadan Light in his work Bad’ Khalq al-Samawat wa al-Ard which is printed in the margin of the work Taj al-Muluk (n.d.) (1)Among the sources mentioned therein is the oft-cited sacred tradition which means ” I was a sacred treasure , and I loved to be known, so I created the world so that I will be known” or “so that they will know Me” (2)Another tradition is cited which is to the effect :“Truly Aallah created the spirit of The Prophet from His essence and He created the whole universe from the Spirit of Muhammad (Ruh Muhammad”.(3). This means that He created the Spirit of the Prophet s.a.w. from non-existence into existence from His Own Presence, not in the sense that the Spirit of the Prophet is created from a part of the essence of God. Another tradition is also cited to the effect “I (the Prophet (s.a.w.) is from Allah , and the believers are from me” (4).This means, as explained by the author himself, that the Prophet is the first creation created by God and the believers are created by Him from him (that is from his light) (5). He also cited another tradition to the effect :“I (Allah) created all things because of you (O Muhammad) and I created you because of Me” (ibid.10). He also cited the tradition to the effect :”Had it not been for you I would not have created the spheres”.(6) Another tradition is also cited to the effect :”I have created the Prophet whereas Adam was between water and clay”. (7)

Other traditions cited by Shakik Nur al-Din rh are the following which are to the effect :”The earliest thing created by Allah is the intellect” (8) ; “The earliest thing created by Allah is the Heavenly Pen (al-Qalam)”(9); “The earliest thing creaqted by Allah are the spirits”(10); then he explains that the intellect, the heavenly Pen, and the spirits are from the Muhammadan Light (Nur Muhammad) as is clear from another tradition cited by him to the effect :”The earliest thing created by Allah is my light” (11) .Also cited is the tradition to the effect :The earliest thing created by Allah is my spirit”(12)

According to Shaikh Nur al-Din, Allah created the Light of Muhammad from the Light of His Ahadiah.He has cited this based on the statement in the text of al-Manzum which is to the effect “The Attributes of Divine Majesty and Divine Beauty have come together, so Divine Beauty has got the upper hand on Divine Majesty, so God created from the two [from His Will-uem] the Spirit of Muhammad, from non-existence into existence.(13).We have to observe that all that which was created are the creations of Allah , not that they are continuous with the Divine Essence, otherwise there will be two eternal entities, and this is polytheism.

Shaikh Nur al-Din says that after Allah has created the Muhammadan Light or the Muhammadan Spirit, He looks at it [with Divine Compassion –uem] , with love , so the Light feels bashful, and it sweats, from its sweat are created the spirits of the prophets , the saints, and the believers who are pious, and from the spirits of the pious believers are created the spirits of the believers who are wrong-doers, and from the spirits of the believers who are wrong-doers are created the spirits of the unbelievers.(14)

He states that from the spirit of mankind is created the spirits of the angels, and from the spirits of the angels are created the spirits of the jinns, from them the spirits of satans, from them the spirit of the animals, amnd from them the spirit of the plant kingdom, some of them having degrees [in the scale of being-uem] above that of the others; and from these plants there emerge elements, namely the atmosphere, fire, water, and the wind (ibid.13). Then he mentions that Allah looks at it with the look of Majesty, then it melts, and becomes water, , some of it becoming fire, then there emerges smoke going into the atmosphere, and from this Allah created the seven heavens.After this there is some remainder, and from it Allah created the sun, the moon, and the stars, and so on.(15)

He cites another famous narration to the effect that Allah created a Tree with four branches, named the Tree of Certainty,then He created the Light of Muhammad in the form of a Peacock, and He placed it on the Tree.The Peacock blessed the Infinite Glory of God for seventy-thousand years.When the Peacock sees that it has so beautiful feathers and other beautiful features, it falls down in prostration five times, that becoming the five daily prayers for the Muhammadan community.

He also cites the narration about God making a lamp from the red ‘aqiq (16) .

The “Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah” oleh Zain al-‘Abidin al-Fatani rh:

Among the popular Jawi texts on this topic is the work b Shaikh Zain al-’Abidin al-Fatani, by the title of “Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah” (lit.”The Unveiling of the Unseen”. .

The “Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah” is based on the original Arabic of “Daqa’iq al-Akhbar fi Dhikr al-Jannah wa al-Nar” written by Imam ‘Abd al-Rahim bin Ahmad al-Qadhi, and the work “Durar al-Hisan” by Imam al-Suyuti, and the “Mashariq al-Anwar” by Shaikh Hasan al-‘Adawi by Shaikh Zain al-‘Abidin al-Fatani rh (Maktabah wa Matba’ah dar al-Ma’arif, Pulau Pinang , t.t.)

This work was composed in the year 130 A.H. On page 3 and the following pages there is the first Chapter about the creation of the greatest Spirit (al-Ruh al-A’zam) , namely the Light of Muhammad salla’Llahu ‘alaihi wa sallam. He states:

Truly there has come the narration that Allah the most High created a Tree

With four branches, and He called it the Tree of the Muttaqin (The Tree

Of the Pious Ones), and in one narration it is The Tree of Certainty (Sha-

Jarah al-Yaqin); then He created the Light of Muhammad in a veil of a very

White Diamond, like the form of a Peacock, and He placed it on that Tree

, and that Light blessed the Infinite Majesty of God for seventy-thousand

years, then He created a Mirror of Bashfulness and placed it in front of the

Light, when the Peacock sees it, and observes its beautiful appearance

full of ornamentation, it becomes bashful in front of the Divine Presence,

and it sweats in six droplets, from the droplets Allah created, the first,

the spirit of Abu Bakar, Allah be pleased with him, from the second

droplet Allah created the spirit of Umar God be pleased with him, and from

the third droplet, He created the spirit of ‘Uthman , and from the fourth

droplet He created the spirit of Ali God be pleased with him, from the

fifth droplet the rose tree and from the sixth droplet the paddy.(17)

Then the narration goes on to mention how the Muhammadan Light prostrated five times, thereby making the five obl,igatory prostrations , hence the obligation of the five daily canonical prayers on Muhammad and his Community. Then the Light becomes bashful and sweats; from the sweat of its nose Allah created the angels, from the sewat of its face, God created the Throne, The Footstool, the Preserved Tablet, the Heavenly Pen, the sun, the moon, the veil, the stars, and things in the heavens.From the sweat of its breast God created the Prophets, the Messengers, the religious scholars, the martyrs, and the pious ones.From the sweat of its back God created the Heavenly Frequented Fane, the Bait al-Maqdis, and all the locations of mosques in the whole world. (18)

There is the mention of other aspects of the creation from the sweat.

From the sweat of its eye-brows are created the believers, men and women from the Muhammadan Community. From the sweat of its ears are created the souls of the Jews and the Christians and the Magians, then the heretics, the unbelievers, those who reject the Truth, and the hypocrites.From the sweat of its feet are created the earth from the east to the West and all that it contains.(19)

Then Allah commands the Light to look in front, in its front there is light, in its right and left there is light. They are Abu Bakar, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali. Then the light blesses the Infinite Majesty of Allah for seventy-thousand years.

The writer of the work states that : the light of the prophets is created from the Light of Muhammad s.a.w.; it means the souls of the prophets are created from the sweat of the Muhammadan Spirit, and the souls of the Communities of the various prophets are from the sweat of the souls of the respective prophets.

Then there is the narration to the effect that Allah created a lamp from red ‘aqiq , its inside can be seen from the outside, then the Muhammadan Form as is in this world is created by God, and placed in that Lamp, and he stands therein praying, as he can be seen praying in this world.Then the souls of all prophets and others go around the lamp of the Muhammadan light s.a.w. , blessing the Infinite Majesty of God, celebrating His oneness, for one hundred thousand years.Then Allah commands all the souls to see the light.Those who see it at the head will be caliphs among mankind; those who see it at the forehead will become just rulers; those who see it at the eyes will become the memorizers of the sacred Speech of God; those who see it at the eye brows will become painters; those who see at the ears will become those who listen and accept [good teachings and lessons]; those seeing the cheeks will be intelligent doers of good; those seeing the mouth will be the great ones among the kings and rulers. Those seeing the nose will be judges, physicians and perfumers.Those seeing the mouth will be those who fast.And son on; those seeing certain parts of the body will be possessing certain qualities in their earthly existence. For example those seeing the breast will be scholars, noble and those capable of sound disciplined judgment in their life (20). Those not seeing anything will claim divinity like the case of the Pharaoh and those like him (21).

He cites the sacred tradition oft-quoted: ( كنت كنزا مخفيا فأحببت أن أعرف فخلقت الخلق لاعرف ) : I am a sacred treasure and I love to be known so I created the universe aso that I am known [by My creation] (22)..

He also cites the tradition of the Prophet s.a.w.:

( أول ما خلق الله تعالى نورى وفى رواية روحى):

The earliest created by God the most High is my light. In one narration it is mentioned :my spirit (ruhi).

The writer of the work comments: The whole world is created by God the Infinitely Exalted because of (“daripada sebab”) the light of Muhammad s.a.w. as already mentioned .Then he mentions the sacred tradition :

( (خلقت الاشياء لاجلك وخلقتك لاجلى

I created all things because of you (O Muhammad) and I created you for Me.That means The Light of Muhammad is created without intermediary (23).

Through this well known work the concept of the Muhammadan Light is spread among Muslims of this region through the medium of the jawi text.

The following chapter is about the creation of Adam on him be peace. (p. 6 ff).

The ‘ al-Kaukab al-Durri fi al-Nur al-Muhammadi‘ by Shaikh Muhammad bin Isma’il Daud al-Fatani rh:

This text is recently published by the Khazanah al-Faththaniyyah , Kuala Lumpur,2001. This is composed by its author in 1304 A.H. in Makkah. It deals with the Muhammadan Light from page 2 to page 7. The contents are from the narration of Ka’b al-Akhbar , the same data as found in the previous text Kash al-Ghaibiyyah of Shaikh Zain al-’Abidin al-Fatani.

Among the data: Allah takes a Grasp of light from His Light , He commands It to become Muhammad, so it becomes Muhammad; then it becomes a pillar of Light, it prostrates towards Allah.Then that Light is divided into four: the first part becomes the Preserved Tablet, the second becomes Heavenly Pen, command is given to the Pen to write, up to the communities of the prophets, those who are obedient and those who are disobedient, with the consequences. Then there is the mention about those seeing the Light at the various parts possessing various attributes. All creatures are created from this light. This ends with the mention of the creation praying in the image of the letters of the name Ahmad or Muhammad; the standing is the equivalent of alif, the bowing down is equivalent to the letter ha’, the prostration is like the letter mim, and the sitting down is like the letter dal. It is also mentioned that the creation is made in the image of the name Muhammad , the head is like the mim, the two hands like the ha’, the stomach like the mim, the two feet like the dal..

The “Daqa’iq al-Akhbar fi Dhikr al-Jannah wa al-Nar” translated into Malay by Shaikh Ahmad ibn Muhammad Yunus Langka:

This text is translated by him in 1312 A.H. in Makkah ; previously it was published by the Dar Ihya’ al-Kutub al-’Arabiyyah , Egypt.Then it was published by the Maktabah wa Matba’ah al-Ma’arif of Pulau Pinang, undated.

This work deals with the Light of Muhammad s.a.w as the origin of all the creation, as elucidated in the work of Zain al-’Abidin al-Fatani in his Kash al-Ghaibiyyah which has made this text as one of its sources, as mentioned in its introduction.The first chapter has the same contents as what is in the translation of the text.

The Madarij al-Su’ud oleh Nawawi al-Bantani rh

This work Maqdarij al-Su’ud ila ‘ktisa’ al-Burud , in Arabic, is the commentary of the famous text Maulid al-Barzanji .In giving the commentary upon the statement in the al-Barzanji text (24) :

That is: ‘All praise is for Allah Who has opened (the whole of) existence with The Light of Muhammad (al-Nur al-Muhammadi) which flows in everything determined by Divine Pre-Measurement from God the Exalted before creating the heavens and the earth for fifty thousand years…:

Then Shaikh Nawawi al-Bantani rh says, citing the narration of Ka’b al-Akhbar , may Allah be pleased with him: “When Allah wants to create all the creation and to spread out the earth and put up the heavens, He takes a Grasp of the His Light and gives the command : You become Muhammad, and so it becomes as a pillar of light shining brilliantly, until it comes to the veil of darkness; then it falls in prostration, while saying : All praise be for Allah.Then Allah commands: Because of this I created you, and name you Muhammad [the One Praised], from you I begin the creation and [with you] I complete the seal of the messengers; then Allah the Most High divides the light into four parts, from the first part He created the Preserved Tablet, from the second the heavenly Pen, then Allah commands the Pen: You write, then the Pen …for a thousand years because of the awe towards the Divine Command; then the Pen says: What shall I write?God says: You write : ‘There is no deity except Allah and Muhammad is the envoy of Allah’ So the pen writes what is commanded’ then it becomes directed to the Knowledge of God among the creation; then it writes about the children of Adam as to those who are obedient to God and they are brought into Paradise and those who are disobedient and they are brought into Hell.

Then (it writes) about the Community of Nuh , those who are obedient to God who are brought into Paradise, and those who are disobedient and brought into Hell…

The text goes on with the mention of the Communities of Prophet Ibrahim…Musa, …of ‘Isa…, up to the Community of Prophet Muhammad s.a.w. Then when the Heavenly Pen wants to write about those who are disobedient among the Community of Muhammad who are to be placed in Hell, Voice is heard from The Most High: ‘ O Pen, be appropriate in your conduct, then the Pen breaks because of the awe towards the Divine…This is followed by the mention of the third part of the light being made into the Throne,and the fourth part being subdivided again into four, from the first part is made the in tellect, from the second is created gnosis, from the third the light of the Throne, and the light of the eye, the light of the daylight, and all these lights are from the Light of Muhammad.

Then the fourth part is placed under the Throne until Allah has created Adam, a.s., then Allah placed the light in his back, and the angels are made to prostrate towards him [as a mark of respect] then he is placed in Paradise, while the angels are in rows behind him looking at the Muhammadan Light. When Adam on him be peace asks why are the angels standing behind him in rows, Allah answers : they are looking at the light of His beloved one Muhammad who is the seal of the messengers and the prophets.Then when Adam requested that the light be placed in front, it is placed on his forehead. So the angels face him in front of him. Then Adam requested that it be placed on his forefinger so that he can look at it; the light becomes all the more resplendent. Then it is mentioned that the light is transferred to Hawwa’ , then to Shith, and so on. Then the light is transferred from one pure womb to another, until it is placed in the loins of ‘Abdullah the father of the Prophet s.a.w., then finally he is brought forth into the world through the womb of his mother Aminah. (25).

The Muhammadan Light in the “Sejarah Melayu”

In the famous work in Malay Classical Literature the Sejarah Melayu or the Sulalatus-Salatin (Shellabear edition, Penerbit fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1989 p.1 aqnd the Yayasan Karyawan Edition , Kuala Lumpur, 2001 p. ) it is stated in relation to this Muhammadan Light in the introduction:

Al-hamdulillahi ‘Lladhi la ilaha illah huwa , wa kana fil-azali wa la shai’a ma’ahu. Segala puji-pujian bagi Allah Tuhan yang tiada Tuhan hanya Ia, dan adalah ia pada azal , tiada suatu juapun sertaNya.Wa huwa ‘l-Abadiyyu ’s-Samadiyyu wa la shay’a ba’daHu.Thumma khalaqa’l-khala’iqa wa la hajata lahu.dan Ialah Tuhan Yang Abadi , laqgi senantiasa adaNya, dan tiada suatu juapun kemudianNya; maka dijadikanNya sekelian makhluk, dan tiada hajat baginya.. Walamma arada izhara RububiyyatiHi fa khalaqa nura habibiHi ; wa min dhalika’l-Nuri khalaqal-anbiya’a wa rafa’a rutbatahu.Maka tatkala ia hendak menyatakan ketahuannya , maka dijadikan Nur kekasihNya , dan daripada nur itulah dijadikan segala anbiya’ , dan diperangkatkan martabatnya. Wa’stafa minhum Adama liyuzhira Nurahu falidhalika sajadal-mala’ikatu kulluhum lahu.Daripada anbiya’ itu nabi Allah Adam supaya menyatakan nur kekasihNya; maka dari kerana itulah sujud sekelian malaikat akan dia…

All praise is for Allah , there is no god but He, and He is pre-Eternal , there is nothig with Him; He is the Eternal, Always Existing, there is nothing after Him, He created all creation, and He has no nedd for them.Then when He He wants to manifest His Divine Lordship , He created the Light of His Beloved, and from it He created all the prophets, and He raised its status. From the prophets He chose Adam to manifest the light of His beloved, and because of it [of the existence of the light in Adam-uem] the angels fell prostrate before him….

In the above quotation there are a number of statements in this important text:

-when Allah wants to manifest His Lordship He creates the light of His beloved one

-the light is then created

-from that light the prophets are created

-that light is raised in its degree of excellence among the created

-from that light is chosen Adam to carry that l.ight within him

-becxause of the existence of the resplendent Muhammadan light in him the angels prostrated to him

Discussion Concerning the Sources of the Concept of The Primordial Muhammadan Light In Sunni Sacred Narrative:

Among the sources of the concept of the Muhammadan Light in Sunni sacred narrative are the Qur’an and the Sunnah.

In the Qur’an there is the mention of the “nur” (light) in the verse which means: “Truly there has come to you :Light and a Book manifest” (5.15).In the tafsir al-Jalalain by al-Suyuti rh it is stated that the “nur” or light is “the Messenger of Allah” s.a.w.. The verse is as follows:

.”قَدْ جَاءَكُمْ مِنْ اللَّه نُور” هُوَ النَّبِيّ صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ “وَكِتَاب” قُرْآن “مُبِين” بَيِّن ظَاهِر

In the “tafsir of al-Qurtubi” it is stated :

” قَدْ جَاءَكُمْ مِنْ اللَّه نُور ” أَيْ ضِيَاء ; قِيلَ : الْإِسْلَام , وَقِيلَ : مُحَمَّد عَلَيْهِ السَّلَام ; عَنْ الزَّجَّاج .

“There has come to from Allah light , it is said that it is Islam,and it is also said that it is Muhammad s.a.w. , from al-zajjaj. And the book is the Qur’an.

In the “Tafsir al-Tabari” “nur” :there has come to you o the people of trhe Taurat and the Injil Light from Allah, that is the ‘Nur’ or Light is Muhammad s.a.w. through him the truth of Islam is illuminated and througfh him polytheism is abolished. The sentence is :

قَدْ جَاءَكُمْ يَا أَهْل التَّوْرَاة وَالْإِنْجِيل مِنْ اللَّه نُور , يَعْنِي بِالنُّورِ مُحَمَّد صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ , الَّذِي أَنَارَ اللَّه بِهِ الْحَقّ , وَأَظْهَرَ بِهِ الْإِسْلَام , وَمَحَقَ بِهِ الشِّرْك

In the “Tafsir ibn Kathir” concerning the verse (5.15) it is stated:

قَدْ جَاءَكُمْ مِنْ اللَّهِ نُورٌ وَكِتَابٌ مُبِينٌ ” يَقُول تَعَالَى مُخْبِرًا عَنْ نَفْسِهِ الْكَرِيمَةِ أَنَّهُ قَدْ أَرْسَلَ رَسُوله مُحَمَّدًا بِالْهُدَى وَدِين الْحَقّ إِلَى جَمِيع أَهْل الْأَرْض

There has come to you from Allah light and a Book manifest, Allah gives news from Himself about Him sending His Messenger Muhammad with guidance and the religion of Truth to all mankind .

Then in the Qur’an in verse 119 of Surah al-Shu’ara’ concerning the statement :

وَتَقَلُّبَكَ فِي السَّاجِدِينَ And about your movement among those who prostrate themselves it is stated:

قَالَ مُجَاهِد وَقَتَادَة : فِي الْمُصَلِّينَ . وَقَالَ اِبْن عَبَّاس : أَيْ فِي أَصْلَاب الْآبَاء , آدَم وَنُوح وَإِبْرَاهِيم حَتَّى أَخْرَجَهُ نَبِيًّا . وَقَالَ عِكْرِمَة : يَرَاك قَائِمًا وَرَاكِعًا وَسَاجِدًا ; وَقَالَهُ اِبْن عَبَّاس أَيْضًا

That is:Mujahid and Qatadah says: among those who perform their prayers. Ibn ‘Abbas rd says: that is in the loins of [his ] ancestors, Adam, Nuh and Ibrahim until God brings him forth as a prophet [through the womb of his mother Aminah ].’Ikrimah says: He sees you standing, bowing down and prostrating. Ibn ‘Abbas also says this.

It is to be noted that in the view of Ibn ‘Abbas there is the interpretation that the Prophet is understood to have been transferred in the generations from Adam in the loins and wombs of pious personalities until his emergence in Arabia in his prophetic history to perform his function as is clear from the Sirah.

In the “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” in relation to the verse above, there is the statement:

وَتَقَلُّبَكَ فِي السَّاجِدِينَ

وَقَوْله تَعَالَى ” وَتَقَلُّبك فِي السَّاجِدِينَ ” قَالَ قَتَادَة ” الَّذِي يَرَاك حِين تَقُوم وَتَقَلُّبك فِي السَّاجِدِينَ ” قَالَ فِي الصَّلَاة يَرَاك وَحْدك وَيَرَاك فِي الْجَمْع وَهَذَا قَوْل عِكْرِمَة وَعَطَاء الْخُرَاسَانِيّ وَالْحَسَن الْبَصْرِيّ وَقَالَ مُجَاهِد كَانَ رَسُول اللَّه صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ يَرَى مِنْ خَلْفه كَمَا يَرَى مِنْ أَمَامه وَيَشْهَد لِهَذَا مَا صَحَّ فِي الْحَدِيث ” سَوُّوا صُفُوفكُمْ فَإِنِّي أَرَاكُمْ مِنْ وَرَاء ظَهْرِي ” وَرَوَى الْبَزَّار وَابْن أَبِي حَاتِم مِنْ طَرِيقَيْنِ عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس أَنَّهُ قَالَ فِي هَذِهِ الْآيَة يَعْنِي تَقَلُّبه مِنْ صُلْب نَبِيّ إِلَى صُلْب نَبِيّ حَتَّى أَخْرَجَهُ نَبِيًّا .

The statement of Allah the Most High: “And your movement among those who prostrate themselves” Qatadah says: He Who sees you when you stand and your movement among those who prostrate themselves” in their prayers. He sees you alone and in congregation.This is the view of ‘Ikrimah and ‘Ata’ al-Khurasani and also Hasan al-Basri.

Mujahid says: The messenger of Allah s.a.w. is used to seeing what is behind him just as he sees in front of him.And that which can be witness for this is what is sound in the tradition meaning ‘You straighten tour rows truly I see you behind me’.And al-Bazzar and ibn Abi Hatim narrate from two ways on the authority of ibn ‘Abbas that he is of the opinion that concerning this verse the Prophet moves from the loins of one prophet to that of another until he is brought from [by God] as a prophet [in this world].

In the Tafsir Ruh al-ma’ani of al-Alusi rh,(died. 1170 A.H.)concerning the interpretation of the verse 5.15 it is stated:

{ قَدْ جَاءكُمْ مّنَ ٱللَّهِ نُورٌ } عظيم وهو نور الأنوار والنبـي المختار صلى الله عليه وسلم، وإلى هذا ذهب قتادة واختاره الزجاج، وقال أبو علي الجبائي: عنى بالنور القرآن لكشفه وإظهاره طرق الهدى واليقين واقتصر على ذلك الزمخشري، وعليه فالعطف في قوله تعالى: { وَكِتَـٰبٌ مُّبِينٌ } لتنزيل المغايرة بالعنوان منزلة المغايرة بالذات، وأما على الأول: فهو ظاهر، وقال الطيبـي: إنه أوفق لتكرير قوله سبحانه: { قَدْ جَاءكُمُ } بغير عاطف فعلق به أولاً وصف الرسول والثاني: وصف الكتاب، وأحسن منه ما سلكه الراغب حيث قال: بين في الآية الأولى والثانية النعم الثلاث التي خص بها العباد النبوة والعقل والكتاب، وذكر في الآية الثالثة ثلاثة أحكام يرجع كل واحد إلى نعمة مما تقدم فـ

(26)ندي أن يراد بالنور والكتاب المبين النبـي صلى الله عليه وسلم، والعطف عليه كالعطف على ما قاله الجبائي، ولا شك في صحة إطلاق كل عليه عليه الصلاة والسلام، ولعلك تتوقف في قبوله من باب العبارة فليكن ذلك من باب الإشارة،(27)

[Concerning the explanation of the verse meaning : 'There has come to you from Allah light and an Book' ]… a great light (‘azim) , he is light of all lights (nur al-anwar) , the chosen prophet s.a.w. .And Qatadah is of this view , and also (the well. Known linguist holds this same view) al-zajjaj…And this is not far [from the truth] in my view bcause the clear Book is[also] nabi s.a.w. and the ‘ataf (the conjunction ‘and’) on it said by al-Jubba’I [that is to al-Jubba'I the Mu'tazilite the nur and the book both refer to the Qur'an][hence for Alusi , both refer to the Prophet s.a.w], and there is no doubt in the matter that the mention of each one the two is meant the prophet s.a.w., and if there is hesitation to accept it from the point of view of expression then let that be acceptable to you from the point of view of indication.(28)

In relation with the verse to the effect :”And We have not sent you (O Muhammad) except as a mercy to the worlds”, al-Alusi mentions in his ‘tafsir’(29):

وكونه صلى الله عليه وسلم رحمة للجميع باعتبار أنه عليه الصلاة والسلام واسطة الفيض الإلهي على الممكنات على حسب القوابل، ولذا كان نوره صلى الله عليه وسلم أول المخلوقات، ففي الخبر ” أول ما خلق الله تعالى نور نبيك با جابر ” وجاء ” الله تعالى المعطي وأنا القاسم ” (30)

(All these are after taking into consideration the reality of the Prophet as a mediator [wasilah] from the overflowing of the Divine Mercy [al-faid al-Ilahi] on all the creatures since the beginning; because of this his light is the first thing creaqted by God ; in the tradition there is the saying ‘The first thing created by God is the light of your Prophet O Jabir’ and the tradition ‘Allah Most High is the Bestower ,and I am the Distributer (Allah ta’ala al-Muti’ wa ana al-Qasim)’

Then al-Alusi cites the opinion of Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jauziyyah in his Miftah al-sa’adah about prophethood and its cosmic function:

وفي مفتاح السعادة لابن القيم أنه لولا النبوات لم يكن في العالم علم نافع البتة ولا عمل صالح ولا صلاح في معيشة ولا قوام لمملكة ولكان الناس بمنزلة البهائم والسباع العادية والكلاب الضارب التي يعدو بعضها على بعض، وكل خير في العالم فمن آثار النبوة وكل شر وقع في العالم أو سيقع فبسبب خفاء آثار النبوة ودروسها فالعالم جسد روحه النبوة ولا قيام للجسد بدون روحه، ولهذا إذا انكسفت شمس النبوة من العالم ولم يبق في الأرض شيء من آثارها البتة انشقت سماؤه وانتشرت كواكبه وكورت شمسه وخسف قمره ونسفت جباله وزلزلت أرضه وأهلك من عليها فلا قيام للعالم إلا بآثار النبوة أهـ؛

“In the ‘Miftah al-Sa’adah’ by ibn al-Qayyim [it is stated]:Had it not been because of prophethood, then there would be nothing at all in this world of useful knowledge, or good act, and real welfare in human life , and there is no foundation for government, and mankind will be in the position like animals and beasts of prey and dogs causing harm, some being at enmity with others.

“Every thing which is good in this world is from the effects of prophethood, and every evil thing happening in it or which is to happen are all because of the effects of the overshadowing of the effects of prophecy and its studies.Then the world is like a body and prophecy is like its soul, and there is no body [alive and well] without the soul giving it life. Hence, [when there are no more the effects of prophecy and its studies] when the sun of prophecy is eclipsed in this world, then there will remain no more of its impact, and then the skies will be rent asunder, its stars will be scattered, its sun will be folded up, its moon will be no more, its hills will be flattened, its earth will be convulsed, and the creatures therein will be destroyed, and there is no more support for the universe except through the effects of prophecy. (31)

In the same context, in relation to the meaning of the verse “your movements among those who prostrate” (al-Shu’ara’.217-219) , apart from the explanation that the Prophet moves among the believers who perform their prayers, performing his mission of spreading the faith, and other like duties, the writer of the Ruh al-Ma’ani states(32):

From ibn Jubair : the meaning is that ‘they aqre the prophets’ and ’seeing your movements just as the movements of those other than you from among the prophets in spreading what is commanded of them, as what you can see, ‘ and ‘those who prostrate themselves’ are the prophets, then there is narrated by one group [of scholars] among them al-Tabanari, al-Bazzar and Abu Nu’aim on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbas , that he –God be pleased with him- interpreted ‘your movements among those who prostrate themselves’ as to mean the movements of the Prophet [in the form of the Light of Muhammad] in the loins [of the prophets] until his mother delivered him-on him be blessings and peace. - …’(33)

In the Tafsir al-Wajiz fi Tafsir al-Qur’an al-’Aziz by Imam Abul-Hasan ‘Ali Ahmad al-Wahidi (d.468 A.H.) concerning the verse “There has come to you from Allah light and a Book manifest” , it is stated that ‘light’ (nur) is the Prophet s.a.w. and the Book manifest is the Qur’an.(34).

In the Tafsir al-Munir li Ma’alim al-tanzil al-Musamma Mirah Labid li Kashfi Ma’na Qur’an Majid by Shaikh Nawawi al-Bantani rh , on the margin of which is the Tafsir al-Wahidi , it is stated (35):

The verse to the effect :There has come (…from God to you light)that is the Messenger of Allah, Muhammad s.a.w. and a Book manifest, namely the Qur’an…

In the same tafsir in relation to the explanation of the verse to the effect :and your movements among thoise who prostrate themselves; that is Allah sees your movements in prayer in your standing and your bowing down and sujud and your staying with them who pray and you becoming their imam.It is said that He sees you moving in the loins of the believers men and women,from Adam and Hawwa until Abdullah and Aminah, all the ancestors of the Prophet are not guilty of polytheism as long as the Muhammadan light is in them, and when the Muhammadan light moves out from them, among the men and women, to another person, then it is possible that that person worships that which is other than Allah, and Azar (the father of Ibrahim) did not worship idols except after the Light was transferred to Ibrahim, before its transfer (to Ibrahim) he did not worship iidols…(36)

In the Tafsir Tafsir Al-Durr al-Manthur fi Tafsir al-Ma’thur of Imam al-Suyuti rh volume V page 98 concerning the verse to the effect :Your movements among those who prostrate themselves, there is the mention of the following narration:

(Apart from the mention of the Prophet being with the believers , and he following the rules of the religion in all matters, he praying with them in congregation, and he being able to see them from behind him) there is the narration from ibn Abi Hatim and ibn Marduyah on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbas namely :The Prophet s.a.w. continuously moves in the loins of the prophets until his mother gives birth to him .And it is brought out in the narration by ibn Marduyah from ibn ‘Abbas he said :’ I asked the Messenger s.a.w , by my father who will be a ransom to you O Prophet, where were you when Adam was in paradise? The Messenger smiled until his canine teeth become clear.He replied: ‘Truly I was in his loins and when he comes down to the earth I was in his loins, I was in the boat of Nuh, I was thrown in the fire , I was in the loins of my father Ibrahim, and my father and mother are not smeared by the enormity of adultery, and I continuously move in the loins of the chaste into the wombs of the pure (until he is born to his mother Aminah) (37)

In the Tafsir al-Sawi,(38) there is found an explanation about the Muhammadan Light. He says:

There has come to you from Allah light and a Book manifest (namely the Light of the Prophet s.a.w.)- the Prophet is called ‘nur’, light, because he is light which illuminates the heart (basirah) and guides it to the path of truth, and also because he himself is the origin of all and every light, the sensible light and also the light of figurative meaning’

In the Tafsir al-Nasafi-bi Hamish Tafsir al-Khazin(39) there is an explanation:

Nur, is Muhammad ‘alaihis-salam because he brings the light of guidance, just as he is called a lamp bringing forth light.

The same explanation is found in the Tafsir al-Khazin vol. I page 725 concerning the nur in 5:15.

In the tafsir al-Asas fi al-Tafsir by Sa’id Hawwa (40) concerning the ‘nur’ in 5.15 there is the explanation from Allah is nur, nur here is Muhammad salla’Llahu ‘alaihi wa sallam because he affects true guidance and he brings an excellent example to be followed.

In the same tafsir (41) in relation to the verse to the effect “and your movements among those who prostrate themselves” [al-Syu’ara’ 217-219] that is you moving from the loins of one prophet to another until finally he is born as a prophet [born to his mother] (This is apart from the explanation about the Prophet praying together with the believers in congregation and him living in accordance with the rules of the religion in the society together with them)..

Now we can discuss the position of the Muhammadan Light in the Tradition of the Prophet s.a.w.

Traditions Concerning the Nur:

Among the traditions which can be examined are the following:

In the work “Kashf al-Khafa’ wa Muzil al-Ilbas ‘Amman Ishtahara min al-Ahadith ‘Ala Alsinatin-Nas’ of al-‘Ajluni (died.1162 A.H.):

(827 – أول ما خلق اللهُ نورُ نبِيكِ يا جابر – الحديث

رواه عبد الرزاق بسنده عن جابر بن عبد الله بلفظ قال قلت‏:‏ يا رسول الله، بأبي أنت وأمي، أخبرني عن أول شيء خلقه الله قبل الأشياء‏.‏ قال‏:‏ يا جابر، إن الله تعالى خلق قبل الأشياء نور نبيك من نوره، فجعل ذلك النور يدور بالقُدرة حيث شاء الله، ولم يكن في ذلك الوقت لوح ولا قلم ولا جنة ولا نار ولا ملك ولا سماء ولا أرض ولا شمس ولا قمر ولا جِنِّيٌ ولا إنسي، فلما أراد الله أن يخلق الخلق قسم ذلك النور أربعة أجزاء‏:‏ فخلق من الجزء الأول القلم، ومن الثاني اللوح، ومن الثالث العرش، ثم قسم الجزء الرابع أربعة أجزاء، فخلق من الجزء الأول حَمَلَة العرش، ومن الثاني الكرسي، ومن الثالث باقي الملائكة، ثم قسم الجزء الرابع أربعة أجزاء‏:‏ فخلق من الأول السماوات، ومن الثاني الأرضين، ومن الثالث الجنة والنار، ثم قسم الرابع أربعة أجزاء، فخلق من الأول نور أبصار المؤمنين، ومن الثاني نور قلوبهم وهى المعرفة بالله، ومن الثالث نور إنسهم وهو التوحيد لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله‏.‏ الحديث‏.‏ كذا في المواهب‏.‏(

Meaning: “The first thing created by Allah is the light of your prophet O Jabir”This is related by ‘Abd al-Razzaq with his sanad being from Juabir bin ‘Abd Allah with the wording: He said: I said, O Messenger of Allah, may my father and mother be ransom for you, tell me about the earliest thing created by Allah before everything else. The Messenger replied: O Jabir, truly Allah created before anything else the Light of your Prophet, from His Light, then he created that light to turn round and round, with the power willed by Him, while at that instant there is no (Preserved) Tablet, no Heavenly Pen, no Paradise, and Hell, no angels, the heavens , the earth, the sun , the moon, the jinns and mankind. Then God divided that Light into four parts, from the first part He created the Heavenly Pen, from the second He created the (Preserved) Tablet, from the third He created the Throne, then He divided the fourth part into four parts .From the first part He created the angels bearing the Throne, from the second the Footstool, from the third the remainder of the angels, then He divided the fourth part into four.From the first He created the heavens, from the second the earths, from the third Paradise and Hell, then He divided the fourth part into four. From the first He created the light of the vision of the believers; from the second he created the light of their hearts, namely the gnosis of God; from the third He created the light of their intimacy, that is tauhid (or the Oneness of God), there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the Envoy of Allah. Thus from the ‘Mawahib ‘ of al-Qastallani).

The narration goes on:

وقال فيها أيضا‏:‏ واختُلِف هل القلم أول المخلوقات بعد النور المحمدي أم لا‏؟‏ فقال الحافظ أبو يعلى الهمداني‏:‏ الأصح أن العرش قبل القلم، لِما ثبت في الصحيح عن ابن عمر قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم‏:‏ قدر الله مقادير الخلق قبل أن يخلق السماوات والأرض بخمسين ألف سنة، وكان عرشه على الماء، فهذا صريح في أن التقدير وقع بعد خلق العرش، والتقدير وقع عند أول خلق القلم، …> عبادة بن الصامت مرفوعا ‏”‏أول ما خلق الله القلم، فقال له أكتب، فقال رب وما أكتب‏؟‏ قال أكتب مقادير كل شيء‏”‏ رواه أحمد والترمذي وصححه‏.‏

He explains about the issue: There is difference of views [about the matter] among men of learning.Is the heavenly Pen the first of the creation after the Muhammadan Light or not? Al-hafiz Abu Ya’la al-Hamadani is of the view: The most sound view is that the ‘Arsh is before the Heavenly Pen, because this is established in sound narration on the authority of ibn ‘Umar.He said: The Messenger of Allah said: Allah determined the decrees[ of the] creation before creating the heavens and the earth by fifty thousand years, and His Throne was upon water. It is clear that the decree is after the creation of the Throne. And the determination of the decree is at the first instant of the creation of the Heavenly Pen…Then on the authority of ‘Ubadah bin al-Samit: marfu’, ‘The earliest thing created by God is the Heavenly Pen, and He commanded it ‘Write’ The Pen said: O Lord what shall I write?He replied : Write the decrees of all the creatures.’ Related by Ahmad and al-Tirmidhi, al-Tirmidhi saying it a sound tradition.

The narration goes on with the following:

وروى أحمد والترمذي وصححه أيضا من حديث أبي رزين العقيلي مرفوعا‏:‏ إن الماء خلق قبل العرش

وروى السدي بأسانيد متعددة إن الله لم يخلق شيئا مما خلق قبل الماء، فيجمع بينه وبين ما قبله بأن أولية القلم بالنسبة إلى ما عدا النور النبوي المحمدي والماء والعرش انتهى

And Ahmad and Tirmidhi narrated it, the latter saying it as sound tradition, from the tradition of Abu Razin al-’Uqaili, marfu’, : “Truly water is created before the Throne”.

And al-Sindi related with a number of sanads, that “Allah has not created anything before creating water”; and combining this with the previous one can be done by taking the position that the primacy of the creation of the Pen is in relation to what is other than the Muhammadan Light, water and the Throne.

Concerning the creation of the Heavenly Pen, there is the narration:

824– أول ما خلق الله القلم‏.‏

رواه أحمد والترمذي وصححه عن عبادة بن الصامت مرفوعا بزيادة فقال له أكتب، قال رب وما أكتب‏؟‏ قال أكتب مقادير كل شيء،

“The first thing created by Allah is the Heavenly Pen“.Ahmad related it, and Tirmidhi pronounces it as sound, on the authority of ‘Ubadah bin al-Samit, marfu’ with the addition: ‘He said to it, Write! It said: O Lord what shall I write? He replied: Write the decree of all things.

The narration goes on :

قال ابن حجر في الفتاوى الحديثية قد ورد أي هذا الحديث بل صح من طرق، وفي رواية إن الله خلق العرش فاستوى عليه، ثم خلق القلم فأمره أن يجري بإذنه، فقال يا رب بم أجري‏؟‏ قال بما أنا خالق وكائن في خلقي من قطر أو نبات أو نفس أو أثر أو رزق أو أجل، فجرى القلم بما هو كائن إلى يوم القيامة، ورجاله ثقات إلا الضحاك بن مزاحم فوثقه ابن حبان وقال لم يسمع من ابن عباس، وضعفه جماعة، وجاء عن ابن عباس رضي الله عنهما موقوفا عليه‏:‏ إن أول شيء خلقه الله القلم، فأمره أن يكتب كل شيء ورجاله ثقات،

وفي رواية لابن عساكر مرفوعة إن أول شيء خلقه الله القلم، ثم خلق النون، وهي الدواة، ثم قال له اكتب ما يكون أو ما هو كائن – الحديث

Ibn Hajar says in his al-Fatawi al-Hadithah: It has come to be narrated [namely this tradition] that it is sound from a number of ways [of transmission].In one narration : Truly Allah has created the Throne, then He is established on it [in Power and authority], then He created the Heavenly Pen, then He commanded it to flow in accordance with His Permission, then it asks: O Lord with what I shall flow? He replied: With all that of which I am the Creator, that which is in my creation, from the rain, vegetation, or soul, or effect, or sustenance, or term of life, then the Pen flows with what is to exist until the Day of Judgment. His narrators are trustworthy except al-Dahhak bin Muzahim, but ibn Hibban says he is trustworthy.And he said: He has not heard from ibn ‘Abbas, and a group of scholars considers him weak. There has come a narration on the authority of ibn ‘Abbas God be pleased with both of them, mauquf on him [to the effect that] The first thing God created is the pen, then He created the ink-pot (nun), it is the ink. Then He said to it: Write what will be in existence or what exists-tradition.:

The narration goes on:

وروى ابن جرير أنه صلى الله عليه وسلم قال ‏{‏ن ‏(‏في الأصل ‏(‏نون‏)‏ مكان ‏(‏ن‏)‏‏)‏ والقلم وما يسطرون‏}‏ قال لوح من نور، وقلم من نور، يجري بما هو كائن إلى يوم القيامة انتهى

It is related by ibn Jarir that the messenger s.a.w. says: Nun. In the origin it is ‘nun’ in place of ‘letter nun’ by the pen and what they write, he said: The Tablet is from nur, the pen is from nur, it flows with what is in existence until the day of Judgment.

And in the narration of ibn ‘Asakir, marfu’, : the earliest thing created by God is the Pen, then “Nun” the Ink –pot, then He says’Write what exists and will exist’.

In the same text there is the narration as follows:.

وفى النجم روى الحكيم الترمذي عن أبي هريرة أن أول شيء خلق الله القلم، ثم خلق النون وهي الدواة، ثم قال له أكتب، قال وما أكتب، قال أكتب ما كان وما هو كائن إلى يوم القيامة وذلك قوله تعالى ‏{‏ن والقلم وما يسطرون‏}‏ ثم ختم على فم القلم فلم ينطق ولا ينطق إلى يوم القيامة، ثم خلق الله العقل، فقال وعزتي وجلالي لأكْمِلَنَّكَ فيمَن أحببتُ، ولأنْقُصَنَّكَ<صفحة 309> فيمن أبغضت، وقال اللقاني ‏(‏في الأصل ‏(‏اللاقاني‏)‏‏)‏ في شرح جوهرته‏:‏ القلم جسم نوراني خلقه الله، وأمره بِكَتْبِ ما كان وما يكون إلى يوم القيامة، وتمسك عن الجزم بتعيين حقيقته، وفي بعض الآثار أول شيء خلقه الله القلم، وأمره أن يكتب كل شيء، وفي بعضها إن الله خلق اليراع، وهو القصب ثم خلق منه القلم، وفي رواية أول شيء كتبه القلم أنا التواب أتوب على من تاب انتهى‏.‏

In the ‘al-Najm’ , al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi has narrated on the authority of Abu Hurairah : that the first thing God created was the pen, then the ink-container, it is the ink, then He commanded: Write, It said : What shall I write? He said: Write what was, what is and will be until the Day of Judgment; that is [in relation to the commentary of] the statement of Allah the Most High: “Nun.By the Pen and what they write. “Then He placed a seal on the mouth of the Pen and the Pen does not utter anything and it shall not utter until the Day of Judgment.Then God created the intellect.He said: By my Majesty and Power, I will truly perfect you in any person whom I love. And I will decrease you in the person with whom I am in anger.Al-Laqqani says (in the original al-Laqani)) in the commentary of his ‘Jauharah’ : ‘The Pen is a body of spiritual light (jism nurani) created by God, and He commanded it to write what has existed, and what exists and will exist until the day of Judgment.And he refrains from determining its reality , and in some narration of hadith about the creation of first thing, created by God is the Pen,and He commanded it to write about everything, and in some narration : Truly God created the Yara’ (like al-Qalam) or ‘al-Qasab, and from it He created the Pen….’ (42)

In the work “Nazm al-Mutanathir min al-Hadith al-Mutawatir” by Imam Muhammad bin Ja’far al-Kattani rh,in the chapter ‘kitab al-iman up to kitab al-manaqib’, no.194 under the caption of the tradition :”awwalu ma khalaqa’Llah”, there is found the explanation as follows:

194-  أول ما خلق اللّه

- ذكر الأمير في مبحث الوجود من حواشيه على جوهرة اللقاني أنها متواترة‏.‏

‏(‏قلت‏)‏ ورد في بعض الأحاديث أن أول ما خلق اللّه ‏(‏1‏)‏ النور المحمدي وفي بعضها ‏(‏2‏)‏ العرش في بعضها ‏(‏3‏)‏ البراع أي القصب وصح حديث أول ما خلق اللّه ‏(‏4‏)‏ القلم وفي غيره أول ما خلق اللّه ‏(‏5‏)‏ اللوح المحفوظ وجاء بأسانيد متعددة ‏(‏6‏)‏ أن الماء لم يخلق قبله شيء وفي بعض الأخبار ‏(‏7‏)‏ أن أول مخلوق الروح وفي بعضها ‏(‏8‏)‏ العقل إلا أن حديث العقل فيه كلام لأئمة الحديث بعضهم يقول هو موضوع وبعضهم ضعيف فقط*

وأجيب عن التعارض الواقع فيها بأن أولية النور المحمدي حقيقية وغيره إضافية نسبية وأن كل واحد خلق قبل ما هو من جنسه فالعرش

Al-Amir in the discussion about existence from his marginal notes on the Jauharah of al-Laqqani states that the narrations are ‘mutawatir’ in nature.

(I said) [says al-'Ajluni]: In some traditions ‘truly the earliest thing created by God (1) is the Muhammadan Light, in some others it is(2) the Throne, in some others it is (3) the Yaqra’ (like the Pen), that is the Qasab (from which Pen is made-uem). It is sound narration that ‘the first thing created by God is (4) The Pen, and in other narration ‘the first thing created by God’ is (5) the Preserved Tablet, and then there are a number of isnads [mentioning] (6) that it is water, and God has not created anything before it, and in some traditions (7) truly the first thing created by God is Spirit (al-Ruh), and in some others it is (8) the intellect, except that in the tradition about the intellect , in connection with it, some of the imams of hadith hold the view that it is fabricated, and some others just say that it is weak only.

I would like to say [in resolving the issue of] the contradiction in the matter:that the primacy of the Muhammadan Light is in reality, and the primacy of the other things [the water, intellect, the Pen, Throne etc] are in relation to others [not in reality] and everything belonging to its kind being created the first is the Throne. So the Throne is created first before gross bodies ; the intellect being the first of the subtle bodies; yara’ is the first from among the vegetable nature (nabatiah), and Allah is Most Knowing. (43).

In the work “Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah bil-Minah al-Muhammadiyyah” (2 volumes), by Shaikh Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Abu Bakr al-Khatib al-Qastallani (died.923 A.H.) , in the first volume page 5 he states:

Know O reader of sound mind and having qualities of perfection and com pleteness – may Allah grant me and you His taufiq -with the guidance to the Path of Truth that truly when there occurs The Divine Will to create the creation and determine their sustenance, He manifested the reality of Muhammad from the lights of Samadiyyah in the Presence of the Ahadiyyah, then He created all the worlds, all of them, the upper and the lower realms, in the form of His Determinations as existing in pre-eternity in His Will and Divine Knowledge, then He makes known about his prophethood and the good tidings of his messengership, while Adam was in non-existence, as stated that Adam was in between soul and body.

Then there poured forth from him- blessings and peace be upon him- all the various spirits, there emerged the Exalted Assembly with the manifestation in the most majestic way, and for them there is the sweetest of way, and he is – peace and blessings be upon him- the most exalted kind, over all the other creation, He is The Greatest father for all that exists and mankind (all together).

Then when the time is complete for him to be in the inner name, in relation to the Prophet peace and blessings be upon him (to) exist in the physical form,and [for the] spirit to combine with the body, then the determination of time is transferred to the external name, then Muhammad –peace and blessings be upon him- is manifested with his total physical body and spirit, even though he is the latest to appear physically , and you know his value, namely, he is the treasure of the secret and the locus of the occurance of the Command; then the command cannot come through except through him; goodness does not come except from him…Narration of the tradition of the Prophet from Imam Muslim in his ’sahih’, from the narration of ‘Abd Allah bin ‘Umar from the Messenger s.a.w. that he said: ‘Truly Allah has determined the decrees of all the creatures before He created the heavens and the earth for fifty thousand year, and the Throne was upon water.”

…From ‘Irbad bin Sariyah from the Prophet s.a.w. “Truly I was in the Presence of Allah as the seal of the Prophets – whereas Adam was stretched out in his earthly body [not yet alive with the breathing of the spirit in him]‘.narrated by Imam Ahmad and al-Baihaqi, also al-Hakim, to al-Hakim it is sound narration.

Further he states : From Maisarah al-Dabbi, he said: ‘I asked: O Messenger of Allah, when did you become prophet? He replied: ‘When Adam was between soul and body’. This is the wording in the narration of Ahmad and al-Bukhari in his ‘Tarikh’, and Abu Nu’aim in his “al-Hilyah”.Al-Hakim says it is sound (sahih).

After mentioning a number of traditions concerning the topic of the existence of Muhammad before his earthly appearance, Qastallani gives explanations about the meanings of the traditions cited.

He states::

It can be supposed that the tradition (about Muhammad being a prophet while Adam was still in between body and soul) together with the narration of al- Irbad bin Sariyah about the fact of being prophet is obligatory and established for him, then this appears on the physical plain [in history]. Truly writing (‘al-kitabah’) is used in relation to something which obligatory , like the verse ‘ fasting has been made obligatory upon you (lit.’it has been written [as obligatory] upon you) and the usage in ‘Allah has made obligatory (lit.Allah has written) that I will truly be victorious ‘ And in the tradition of Abu Hurairah (it is stated) that they (the Companions) asked: When was prophethood made obligatory on you? The Prophet s.a.w. replied : (At the time when ) Adam was still in between soul and body’.Related by al-Tirmidhi , he says it is hasan sahih.

Then al-Qastallani mentions the tradition in ‘Amali ibn Sahal al-Qattan’ from Sahal ibn Salih al-Hamadhani he said: I asked Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn ‘Ali how Prophet Muhammad became prophet coming before other prophets whereas he is the last to have been sent. He replied: ‘Truly Allah the Most High –when He took the children of Adam from their progeny from their backs, making them witnesses for themselves, ‘Am I not your Lord? ‘ and Prophet Muhammad [then in the realm of spirits] was the first to have replied :’Yes’ because of that he becomes the foremost among the prophets while he is the last [historically] to be sent [in world history]. If you say that ‘prophecy’ is a quality which must be present in a person so qualified, then how come he has that quality only when he was forty years old, then how is that the attribute is there already whereas he is still not yet in existence? Then the explanation which can be given is the one found in Imam al-Ghazali in his ‘Kitab al-Nafkh wa al-Taswiyah’ concerning this matter and concerning the the tradition :’I am the earliest prophet from the point of creation and the last from the point of being sent [in history]‘, [namely], the meaning of creating (al-khalq) here is determining and not bringing into being (‘al-taqdir duna al-ijad); so the messenger before his mother giving birth to him was not in existence as a creation of Allah, but he existed in the form of objective goals and aspects of perfection (‘al-ghayat wa al-kamalat’) which precede in the decree which follows suit in existence [in history later when the time comes-uem].this is meaning of the statement: [of the wise ones]: ‘The first point of thought is the last point in action’and the last point in action is the first point in thought’ (‘awwalu al-fikrah akhir al-’amal, wa akhir al-’amal awwal al-fikrah).

In giving the explanations on this issue the scholar mentions the point of the the engineer who has the concept and the image (surah) of the building to be built in his mind, in perfect form (dar kamilah); that is in existence in the ‘taqdir’ or determination, and that is what will exist subsequently as a result of the action done. The complete building is the earliest in the determination (taqdir) and that is the last in terms of its physical existence. That is the analogy about the Prophet- ‘I am a prophet’ indicating what is expressed , namely the prophet in the determination ( or taqdir) , and that is the last to exist physically. Hence, that is the analogy about the Prophet s.a.w. ‘I am a prophet’ , namely in the determination before the perfecting of the creation of Adam, because Adam is not created except for bringing out from him his progeny, Muhammad s.a.w.

Then he goes on to explain : namely that this reality cannot be understood except by knowing that the house or the building has two modes of existence (lit. two existences), one its existence in the mind of the engineer and his brain, and he sees the shape and form of the house outside of the mind in the essences (a’yan) and the existence in the mind is the cause for the existence outside the mind, which can be seen by the eyes, and that must come first.Hence- you should know, that God has determined the taqdir , then He brings into existence [those determined] in accordance with the decree…(44).

After this he cites traditions about the early creation of the Muhammadan Light and how other things are brought into being from it..(45)

As for the position of ‘Abd al-Razzaq rh as a source for the tradition on the Muhammadan Light being the source of all creation, there seems to be no issue worthy of note.This is , among others, clear from the authority granted by al-Bukhari to his narration.Al-Bukhari has taken from him 120 narrations and Imam Muslim has taken 400 .(46)

Concerning ‘Abd al-Razzaq, there is an observation about him in the work

Al-Risalah al-Mustatrafah li Bayan Mashhur Kutub al-Sunnah al-Musharrafah, by Maulana al-Imam al-Sayyid Muhammad Ja’far al-Kattani (Maktab al-Kulliyat al-Azhariyyah-Qahiran, undated) on page 13 namely that the: Musannaf Abi Bakr ‘Abd al-Razzaq bin Humam bin Nafi’ al-Himyari died in the year 211 of the Hijrah is smaller than the Musannaf ibn Abi Shaibah,arranged in accordance with the books and chapters [on the sub jects concerned]. And the Jami’ ‘Abd al-Razzaq apart from the ‘Musannaf’ is a well. known and large jami’ work and most of his traditions are brought out by the two shaiks (Bukhari dan Muslim) and the four imams of traditions. This author accepts ‘Abd al-Razzaq as a good authority in hadith.

Concerning the position of ‘Abd al-Razzaq bin Humam bin Nafi’ al-Himyari this seems to be clear, among others, from the confidence given by al-Suyuti in his text of the tafsir Al-Durr al-Manthur .In volume one of the work he cites the narration of ‘Abd al-Razzaq in the first fifty pages of the work at least fourteen times. Among these on page 42 :it is related by ‘Abd al-Razzaq, ‘Abd bin Himaid, ibn Jarir, and ibn Abi Hatim and Abu Shaikh in ‘al-’azamah’ from Mujahid about the saying [of Allah]: to the effect:’He created what is in the earth for you all ‘ and ‘He has subjected to you all that is in the earth…

On page 43 : And it is related by ‘Abd al-Razzaq , ibn Abi Hatim from Sufyan al-Thauri , he said: under the earth is rock…

In the same page: And Waki’ , ‘Abd al-Razzaq, ‘Abd bin Humaid , ibn al-Mundhir and ibn ‘Asakir has related from ibn ‘Abbas , he said: Truly Allah has brought Adam out of Paradise…

On page 52 : ‘Abd al-Razzaq,. Ibn al-Mundhir, ibn Marduwah and al-Baihaqi in the ‘al-Asma’ was-Sifat’ has related together with ibn ‘Asakir from ibn ‘Abbas

That he said: ‘Allah has created Adam from from the outer crust of the earth (adim al-ard) on Friday after ‘Asar, and named him Adam, then he had a covenant with him, then he forgot it, hence he is called ‘insan’ (from the verb ‘nasiya’, to forget-uem)…

On page 39:And ‘Abd al-Razzaq, ‘Abd bin Humaid, and ibn Jarir related from Qatadah, concerning the saying of Allah (to the effect):’ And for them there will be wives pure’ he said: ‘Allah has purified them from urine and stool…

And so on all of which indicate the position of ‘Abd al-Razzaq as a source for accepting traditions in a trustworthy manner.

In the text al-Shifa’ of Qadi ‘Iyad rh there is found explanation from ibn ‘Abbas rd that the Prophet s.a.w. was present in the Divine Presence in his spirit before He created Adam for two thousand years, his light blessing the infinite Majesty of God just like the angels, from him [his light] is created Adam a.s.

When Adam was created the [Muhammadan light] was placed in his loins.The Prophet said: Then Allah brought me down to the earth, in Adam’s loins, then I was made to be in the loins of Nuh, Ibrahim, and continuously Allah has made me move in the loins of the noble ones and the wombs of pure women , until He brought me forth through my parents to the world, and they are untouched in the slightest by shameful deeds.The poem of ibn ‘Abbas praising the Prophet and his virtues bears testimony to the soundness of the narrative.(47).

In connection with the explanation of the meaning of the verse :‘And [He] knows about your movements among those who prostrate themselves” , ibn ‘Abbas says that this means : from one prophet to another prophet until I brought you out as a prophet (at the time you were sent)”(48) .

In relation to the explanation of the verse to the effect Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth , Ka’b al-Akhbar and ibn Jubair hold the view that the meaning of the second light , namely, the similitude of his light , is Muhammad s.a.w. . So the similitude of his light is the Light of Muhammad s.a.w..He is placed in the loins of the Prophets just like a niche ( ka mishkat), its attribute is such, and the lamp (al-misbah) is his heart, the glass (al-zujajah) is his breast , namely it is like a star because of what it contains, consisting of faith and wisdom, being lighted from the blessed tree, namely the Light of Ibrahim on him be peace, it is like a blessed tree; its oil almost burns like fire, namely the prophethood of Muhammad …is clear to mankind even before his speech, like oil …(49). :

Concerning the light of the Prophet s.a.w. in the Shifa’ there is a statement (50)

Among these are the emergance of the signs during the birth of the Prophet s.a.w. and what has been told by his mother and what has been seen of the wonders of the moment; how he raised his head during the birth, his face looking at the heavens, and what was seen by the mother of the light coming out during that birth; also what was observed by Umm ‘Uthman ibn al-’As about the coming down of the stars and the emergance of light at birth which made nothing perseptible except that light only, and then the remarks of al-Shafa Umm ‘Abd al-Rahman bin ‘Auf : When the Messenger s.a.w. was born…the Messenger … he heard the voice: ‘Allah gives mercy to thee and the whole of the East and the West was illuminated for me until I could see the palaces of Rum”(51).

Then in the work al-Madkhal of ibn al-Hajj there are a number of narrations concerning the light of the Prophet s.a.w. Among these there is the narration :

It is related by Imam ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Siqilli rahimahullahu ta’ala in the work ‘al-Dalalat’ by him, with the wording: ‘Truly Allah has not created a creation more beloved to Him than this community; and there is nothing more noble than His prophet s.a.w., then other prophets after him, then the truthful ones, then the chosen saints.And (in relation to ) this truly Allah has created the Light of Muhammad s.a.w. before creating Adam by two thousand years, creating it in the form of a pillar in front of the Throne, and it blesses the infinite majesty of God and sanctifies Him.Then He created Adam on him be peace from that Light of Muhammad s.a.w. and He created from that light of Adam the light of the prophets on them blessings and peace.(52).

Further in the al-Madkhal II.29 there is the narration:

Al-Faqih al-Khatib Abu al-Rabi’ gives the indication in his work ‘Shifa’ al-Sudur’ to a number of matters which are of immense importance; among these is the narration , namely, that when Allah the Most Wise wanted to create the essence of the Prophet s.a.w. which is blessed, He ordered Jibril on him be peace to descend to the earth, and bring with him earth which is going to be the heart of the earth, with its glory and light…(until the narration about the creation of the Light of Muhammad and the Light of Muhammad shines at the back of Adam, the angels stand behind Adam to see the light of Muhammad s.a.w….Then Adam asked so that the light is placed where he himself can see it, so God placed it where Adam could see it, with the indication of the ‘la ilaha illa’Llah Muhammadun Rasulullah’ and in the prayer (by looking at his forefinger)…then the light is placed on Adam’s forehead it looks like the sun in its orbit or the moon in the night of its fullness (53).

In the same text is mentioned the narration about the first thing created by God being the Light of Muhammad and from it is created all other things.,

Concerning the Light of Muhammad narrations can also be found in the work entitled Hujjatu’Llah ‘alal-‘Alamin fi Mu’jizati Sayyidil-Mursalin by Syaikh Yusuf al-Nabhani.(54) He says :

Nobility and excellence (‘karamah’ and’ fadilah’) has not been grant ed among them [among the prophets] except the same is granted to him salla’Llahu ‘alaihi wa sallam.Adam on him be peace has been granted a boon from God, namely He is created by the [Creative] Hands of God , and so Allah granted His Boon to Muhammad peace and blessings be upon him by opening for him his breast, and taking him close to His Divine Self, making his breast for Him, placing in it faith and wisdom, and the prophetic morals; so the boon for Adam was the creation of existence (wujud) and for the Prophet Muhammad s.a.w. the grant of the prophetic morals, even as the creation of Adam was for the creation of the Prophet in his loins; so our prophet Muhammad s.a.w. is the objective and Adam on him be peace is the means for that, and the objective has precedence over the means.As for the prostration of the angels for Adam on him be peace , says Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, in his commentary of the Qur’an : the angels are commanded to prostrate themselves because of the presence of the Muhammadan light on his forehead.

In the al-Mustadrak of al-Hakim rh there are a number of narrations concerning the light of the Prophet s.a.w.Among these are the following :

(It is related to us) by ‘Ali bin Hamshad al-’Adl by imla’ , Harun bin ‘Abbas al-Hashimi has related to us , Jundul bin Waliq has related to us (and so on reaching up to al-’Abbas rd) that the Prophet said: Allah has revealed to ‘Isa on him be peace , O ‘Isa, have faith in Muhammad and command anybody from among your community who happens to come across him to have faith in him, and had it not been for Muhammad I would not have created Adam, and had it not been for Muhammad I would not have created Paradise, Hell; I created the Throne on water, then it shook, so ‘la ilaha illa’Lllah Muhammadun Rasulullah ‘ was written on it, so it became calm.

(Al-Hakim says this hadith is sound) and it is not related by Bukhari and Muslim)(55)

From Maysarah al-Fakhr, he says that he asked the Messenger of Allah, “O Messenger of Allah, when were you a prophet?” He replied: “While Adam was still in between soul and body”(56)

From Maysarah al-Fakhr also, he says, that he had asked the Messenger of Allah when he was a prophet.He replied : “When Adam was still between soul and body.” (57)

From ‘al-Irbad bin Sariyah he says: I heard the Messenger of Allah s.a.w. saying”Truly I was in the Presence of God in the early part of the Book as the seal of the Prophets, while Adam was stretched in his body , I will inform you abou the interpretation of this, (I am) the prayer of my father Ibrahim , the glad tidings of my brother ‘Isa to his community, and I am the vision of my mother , which she saw light coming out from her body [during my birth] illuminating clearly for her the castles of Syria”(58)

Concerning the matter there is narration from Khalid bin Ma’dan , from a number of the Companions of the Prophet s.a.w. that is they asked him about himself. Tell us about yourself .He replied: I am the prayer of my father Ibrahim , the glad tidings of ‘Isa [to his community about my coming in future], and my mother saw at my birth light coming out from her, illuminatingt clearly for her Busra, and Busra is in Syria. Al-Hakim says that Khalid bin Ma’dan is from among the best of the Tabi’in, and he was the friend of Mu’adh bin Jabal(59).

In the text entitled Jam’ al-Wasa’il fi Sharh al-Shama’il (lit-Tirmidhi) of Mulla ‘Ali bin Sultan Muhammad al-Qari rh (died in1014 H.) there are a number of explanations about the matter.Among them are the following:

Concerning the statement in the Shama’il of Tirmidhi that people seeing the Prophet without having known of him previously feeling so awed by him , to Mulla ‘Ali Qari this is in reference to his majesty and dignity, he says: because there in him the attribute of majesty and with it the the awsomeness of the personality coming from the Divine Presence, and being outpouring from the celestial realm (sifah al-jalal wa ‘alaihi al-haibah al-ilahiyyah wal-fuyud al-samawiyyah)(60).

And in the same text there is the statement concerning ’shama’il’, namely he is more beautiful than the moon-ahsan minal-qamar-The writer explains this in this way: concerning him emerging on the horizons (in the world of the sensible) and the world of souls (of men) with the additional perfection in the tangible and intellectual form, in fact, in reality every light is created from his light (ma’a ziyadah al-kamalat al-suwariyyah wal-ma’nawiyyah, bal fil-haqiqah kullu nurin khuliqa min nurih).

And in relation to the meaning of the verse to the effect:Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth, and the analogy of his light – that is the Light of Muhammad-the nur of his countenance s.a.w., the real, in essence, is inseparable from him even for a moment day and night, whereas the light of the moon is acquired, borrowed [from the sun] sometimes decreasing and sometimes overshadowed [by something else](61)

In the explanations of al-Munawi rh concerning the Prophet s.a.w. being more beautiful than the moon as clear from the text Shama’il al-Tirmidhi , it is stated: That is his countenance to every person; and in the narration of ibn al-Jauzi and others and also Jabir, ‘in my eyes’ as sunstitute for ‘to me’ (‘indi’) ; in the narration of Abu Nu’aim from Abu Bakr , his countenance is like the circle around the moon (‘daratul-qamar’) and in the narration of Darimi from Rabi’ bint al-Mu’awwidh she says:When I saw him I saw the sun rising in its glory.In the narration of al-Mubarak and ibn al-Jauzi from ibn ‘Abbas[it is mentioned that] he has no shadow (lam yakun lahu zill), and he did not stand in the sun except his light overcomes the light of the sun, as is clear from Baijuri (62)

Also in the explanations of al-Munawi in relation to the statement: just like light coming out from in between his teeth, it is stated: it is unnecessary to add (‘like’) (‘ka’) like that which is done by the commentator (of the Shama’il) , how can that be so, [this is] because (what comes out from in between his teeth) is the light of the sensible (the physical light , not light in the abstract, intellectual sense) and he says if that is not physical light how come the wording is ‘ru’iya”: being seen [so]. This means that the light is not ma’nawi or abstract [but really physical light].(63)

In relation to the statement in the Shama’il : when the Prophet s.a.w. came to Madinah (everything) became illuminated, Mulla ‘Ali Qari says: every part of the city of Madinah became illuminated with the sensible light or physical light discernable with the physical eyes-or it can also mean that light in the abstract because by the entry of the Prophet then the light of guidance in general and through it various kinds of darkness are lifted, with the linguistic indication showing excessiveness of meaning (al-mubalaghah), in which, on that day, everything in this world takes its light from Madinah.Or the illumination is figurative indicating the extreme joy for the inhabitants of the city – together with them not caring (in the situation) for those at enmity with them . The author also mentions the opinion of al-Tibbi who sees it as physical light [emanating from the light of Muhammad in the Prophet s.a.w.-uem]..(64)

In the commentary of al-Munawi on the passage in Shama’il of Tirmidhi it is stated: The most sound view [al-asahh] is that every part of the city of Madinah became illuminated by the light in reality (not as figurative usage only) not tajrid (not in the abstract) , how can it otherwise, when he himself in essence in totality is light (‘wa qad kanat dhatuhu kullaha nuran’) , and Allah the Most High has said: [to the effect] : There has come to from God light and a Book Manifest’ and he is light, illuminating the whole cosmos, and he is a lamp giving light . (65)